Ammon Milton Fager, MD, PhD

• Assistant Professor of Medicine

https://medicine.duke.edu/faculty/ammon-milton-fager-md-phd

Pharmacokinetics 5-Fluorouracil is given intravenously because it is variably absorbed from the gut due to high hepatic first-pass metabolism impotence hypnosis discount aczone 60 mg buy line. Deactivation occurs primarily in the liver erectile dysfunction hand pump aczone 60 mg mastercard, where it is reduced to inactive products that are excreted in the urine erectile dysfunction 5gs discount aczone 30 mg online. Capecitabine impotence your 20s cheap aczone 60 mg buy line, an oral prodrug kratom impotence aczone 90 mg buy cheap, is de-esterified and deaminated to yield high concentrations of 5-deoxy fluorodeoxyuridine (5-dFdU). Pretreatment assessment is currently the only pharmacogenetic test in routine use (Chapter 14). Xanthine oxidase also contributes appreciably to inactivation of thiopurine drugs. Other purine Drug interactions Allopurinol inhibits xanthine oxidase (Chapter 26). This is important because allopurinol pretreatment is used to reduce the risk of acute uric acid nephropathy due to rapid tumour lysis syndrome in patients with leukaemia. It is the most widely used drug of the anthracycline group, with proven activity in acute leukaemia, lymphomas, sarcomas and a wide range of carcinomas. Anthracycline cardiotoxicity · Acute: this occurs shortly after administration, with the development of various dysrhythmias that are occasionally life-threatening. Risk factors for cardiomyopathy include prior mediastinal irradiation, age over 70 years and pre-existing cardiovascular disease. Agents to protect against anthracycline cardiomyopathy and allow dose intensification are under investigation. Uses the camptothecins are active against a broad range of tumours, including carcinomas of the colon, lung and cervix. Hepatic extraction is high, with 40% appearing in the bile (as unchanged drug and metabolites. Dose reduction is recommended in patients with liver disease, particularly if accompanied by hyperbilirubinaemia. Topotecan is hydrolysed by the blood carboxylesterase and is excreted in the urine, requiring dose reduction in renal impairment. Adverse effects the principal adverse effects are myelosuppression, acute and delayed diarrhoea (particularly irinotecan), which can be dose limiting and require prophylactic therapy with anticholinergics (for acute diarrhoea) and loperamide, or treatment with octreotide. Despite their close structural relationship, these drugs differ in their clinical spectrum of activity and toxicity. Vincristine is used in breast cancer, lymphomas and the initial treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Vinorelbine has activity against advanced breast cancer and non-small-cell lung cancer, where it is often combined with platinum compounds. Uses Etoposide is one of the most active drugs against small-cell lung cancer and is used in combination therapy. Mechanism of action Vinca alkaloids bind to -tubulin, a protein that forms the microtubules which are essential for the formation of the mitotic spindle. Blockade of microtubular function involved in neuronal growth and axonal transport probably accounts for their neurotoxicity. Further important clinical pharmacology of vinca alkaloids is summarized in Table 48. Ensure that the dose and schedule of certain drugs is adjusted for concurrent renal and hepatic impairment. Haematopoietic growth factors (for myelosuppression) reduce the duration of the nadir neutropenia, but should not be prescribed routinely. Adverse effects these include the following: · nausea and vomiting; · alopecia; · bone marrow suppression (dose-dependent and reversible). Adverse effects these include the following: · · · · · · · hypersensitivity reactions; bone marrow suppression (dose-dependent and reversible); myalgias and arthralgias; sensory peripheral neuropathy; cardiac dysrhythmias; nausea and vomiting; alopecia. They are classified into tyrosine kinases, serine-threonine kinases and tyrosineserine-threonine kinases. The tyrosine kinases are further subdivided into non-receptor tyrosine kinases and receptor tyrosine kinases. Docetaxel is a semi-synthetic taxane derivative with a similar anti-tumour spectrum as paclitaxel. It causes myelosuppression and peripheral fluid retention, but less cardio- and neurotoxicity than paclitaxel. Erlotinib has the best evidence of survival benefit for advanced lung cancer patients. In the nonligand-binding domain of these receptors, there is a tyrosine kinase which phosphorylates the receptor. Adverse effects these include the following: · · · · · nausea and vomiting; peripheral oedema and effusions (rare); leukopenia; skin rashes; hepatitis. Imatinib and its active N-desmethyl metabolite have a halflife of 18 and 40 hours, respectively. The kinetics do not change with chronic dosing and little drug appears unchanged in the urine. Uses Erlotinib and gefitinib are used as single agents (by mouth once daily) to treat tumours. Sorafenib increases median survival by approximately 12 months in patients with advanced refractory renal cell cancer. Adverse effects include skin rash, hand­foot skin reactions, diarrhoea, hypertension and bleeding. Adverse effects include diarrhoea, hypertension, skin discoloration, mucositis, fatigue and hypothyroidism. Less frequently, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and decreases in left ventricular ejection fraction have been noted. The development of monoclonal antibodies against specific antigens (targets) has been facilitated by advances in hybridoma technology. Because murine antimouse antibodies have a short half-life and induce human anti-mouse antibody immune response, they are usually chimerized or humanized for therapeutic use (Chapter 16). Trastuzumab, one of the first agents demonstrated to have clinical benefit in cancer therapy, is discussed below. Other monoclonal antibodies that are used therapeutically in cancer are detailed in Table 48. It is a reversible competitive inhibitor of the proteolytic function of the chymotrypsinlike activity of the 20S core subunit of the proteasome. Proteins once ubiquitinated are destined to be degraded by the proteasome and exit the proteasome as small peptides. Additonally, proteasome inhibition disrupts the homeostasis of key regulatory proteins (p21, p27 and p53) involved in cell cycle progression and proliferation. Adverse effects include thrombocytopenia, fatigue, peripheral neuropathy, neutropenia, gastrointestinal disturbances. Uses Trastuzumab is a humanized monoclonal antibody (molecular weight approximately 100 kDa) that is used as a single agent or in combinations. Many tumour cells overexpress histone deacetylase enzymes which deacetylate histones. Vorinostat inhibits these enzymes, blocking the transcription of genes involved in cell cycle progression. Plasma t1/2 12 days, dose-dependent kinetics Side effects Infusion reactions, opportunistic infections, pancytopenia Additional comments Early efficacy in mycosis fungoides and T-cell lymphoma Bevacizumab Colorectal and Radioisotope labelled versions of other antibodies to the same target are available. They often alleviate symptoms over a long period and they do not cause bone marrow suppression. Sex hormones or their antagonists (Chapter 41) are effective in tumours arising from cells that are normally hormone dependent (breast, prostate). There are several ways in which hormones can affect malignant cells: · A hormone may stimulate growth of a malignant cell. For example, if a breast carcinoma is oestrogen receptor-positive, oestrogen antagonists can inhibit these cells. This will change the hormonal milieu surrounding the malignant cells and may suppress their proliferation. In breast cancer, patients who respond to one form of endocrine therapy are more likely to respond to subsequent hormone treatment than those who fail to respond initially. There are no important toxic effects of progestogens that are relevant to cancer chemotherapy (Chapter 41). These desensitize and suppress testosterone production and have superseded the use of oestrogens to antagonize the androgen dependency of prostate cancer cells. Aminoglutethimide (an aromatase inhibitor) and high-dose ketoconazole (Chapter 45) block the synthesis of testicular testosterone, adrenal androgens and other steroids. It is used to treat oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer and may be used as prophylaxis against breast cancer in high-risk patients. Tamoxifen and its metabolites are competitive inhibitors of oestrogen binding to its receptor. Adverse effects include hot flushes, hair loss, nausea and vomiting, menstrual irregularities, an increased incidence of thrombo-embolic events, and a two- to three-fold increased incidence of endometrial cancer in post-menopausal women. Drugs with proven anti-cancer clinical efficacy in this class are interleukin-2 and interferon-alfa 2b. In these patients with advanced cancer, response rates of as high as 20­30%, with durable complete responses in 5­10% have been observed. They include hypotension, capillary leak syndrome with pulmonary oedema, cardiac dysrhythmias, prerenal uraemia, abnormal transaminases, anaemia-thrombocytopenia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, confusion, rashes and fever. Aromatase inhibitors this class of agents, for example anastrazole (letrozole), is used to treat early and advanced-stage oestrogen receptorpositive breast cancer. This is the aromatase enzyme responsible in many tissues (including breast tissue) for converting androstenedione and testosterone to oestrogen. Adverse effects are less frequent than with tamoxifen, but include hot flushes, menstrual irregularities, thrombo-embolic events and endometrial cancer. About 30% of patients with disseminated adenocarcinoma of the body of the uterus respond to a progestogen, such as megestrol. Progestogen bound to its receptor impairs the regeneration of oestrogen receptors and also stimulates 17-oestradiol dehydrogenase, the enzyme that metabolizes intracellular oestrogen. It is used in the treatment of hairy cell leukaemia, refractory chronic myeloid leukaemia, advanced malignant melanoma and follicular lymphoma. Such processes include enzyme induction, inhibition of cell proliferation enhancement of immune effector cells, such as macrophage phagocytic activity and cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Common adverse effects include flu-like illnesses, fatigue, myalgias and arthralgias, injection site reactions, rashes. Case history A 19-year-old white male presented with palpable lumps on both sides of his neck and profuse sweating at night. After four cycles of chemotherapy, he developed abdominal pain that was found to be due to acute appendicitis and he underwent emergency appendicectomy and made a good recovery. There was no palpable cervical lymphadenopathy, but he had a sinus tachycardia and bilateral basal and mid-zone late inspiratory crackles. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was negative for bacterial, viral and fungal pathogens, including Pneumocystis carinii. Answer In this patient, the possible causes of such pulmonary symptoms and radiographic findings include opportunistic infection, pulmonary oedema (secondary to fluid overload), pulmonary haemorrhage, progression of disease or druginduced interstitial alveolitis. Here, with the exclusion of a haemorrhagic diathesis and pulmonary infection, no fluid overload and apparent regression of his cervical lymphadenopathy, the probable diagnosis is bleomycin-induced interstitial pneumonitis. Glucocorticosteroid therapy may be of benefit, but the syndrome may not be fully reversible. The role of apoptotic or nonapoptotic cell death in determining cellular response to anticancer treatment. Most of the remaining iron (approximately 25%) is stored as ferritin or haemosiderin. Factors reducing iron absorption: (a) Partial gastrectomy reduces gastric acid and iron deficiency is more common than vitamin B12 deficiency following partial gastrectomy. Disposition of iron Iron in the lumen of the gut is transported across the intestinal membrane either directly into plasma or is bound by mucosal ferritin. A negative regulator of gastro-intestinal mucosal absorption of iron (hepcidin) synthesized by the liver may contribute to the anaemia of chronic disease. Iron is transported in plasma by transferrin, one molecule of which binds two atoms of iron. When red cells reach the end of their life-span, macrophages bind the iron atoms released, which are taken up again by transferrin. It is a spherical protein with deeply located ironbinding sites, and is found principally in the liver and the reticulo-endothelial system. Aggregates of ferritin form haemosiderin, which accumulates when levels of hepatic iron stores are high. Iron absorption occurs in the small intestine and is influenced by several factors: 1. The physico-chemical form of the iron: (a) Inorganic ferrous iron is better absorbed than ferric iron. Iron deficiency Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anaemia and although it is most common and most severe in Third World countries, it is also prevalent in developed countries. Serum iron concentration in iron-deficient patients falls only when stores are considerably depleted. Failure to respond may be due to: · · · · wrong diagnosis; non-compliance with therapy; continued blood loss; malabsorption. There are too many iron-containing preparations available, many containing vitamins as well as iron. None of these combinations carries an advantage over iron salts alone, except for those containing folic acid, which are used prophylactically in pregnancy.

Mechanism of action the main action of calcitonin is on bone; it inhibits bone resorption by binding to a specific receptor on osteoclasts inhibiting their action erectile dysfunction caused by hydrocodone 30 mg aczone visa. In the kidney cough syrup causes erectile dysfunction buy aczone discount, it decreases the reabsorption of both Ca2 and phosphate in the proximal tubules erectile dysfunction doctors buffalo ny buy on line aczone. These adverse effects may have reflected a calcium-deficient diet and incorrect dosing impotence over 60 cheap aczone 90 mg mastercard. Recent evidence indicates that strontium ranelate reduces bone reabsorption and increases bone formation erectile dysfunction support groups buy aczone with american express, and reduces vertebral and hip fractures in women with post-menopausal osteoporosis. It is given by mouth at night to older women with osteoporosis and a history of bone fracture when bisphosphonates are contraindicated or not tolerated. Comparative safety of bone remodeling agents with a focus on osteoporosis therapies. Recombinant human parathyroid hormone: osteoporosis is proving amenable to treatment. Thus glucocorticosteroids produce a delayed but profound anti-inflammatory effect. Adverse effects Adverse effects of glucocorticosteroids are common to all members of the group, and will be discussed before considering the uses of individual drugs. Features include: · · · · · · · Cushingoid physical appearance; impaired resistance to infection; salt and water retention; hypokalaemia; hypertension; hyperglycaemia; osteoporosis; glucocorticosteroid therapy is weakly linked with peptic ulceration, and can mask the symptoms and signs of gastrointestinal perforation; mental changes: anxiety, elation, insomnia, depression and psychosis; posterior cataracts; proximal myopathy; growth retardation in children; aseptic necrosis of bone. Glucocorticosteroids influence carbohydrate and protein metabolism, and play a vital role in the response to stress. Glucocorticosteroids stimulate the mobilization of amino acids from skeletal muscle, bone and skin, promoting their transport to the liver where they are converted into glucose (gluconeogenesis) and stored as glycogen. The major therapeutic uses of the glucocorticosteroids exploit their powerful anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties. They reduce circulating eosinophils, basophils and T-lymphocytes, while increasing neutrophils. Applied topically to skin or mucous membranes, potent steroids can cause local vasoconstriction and massive doses administered systemically can cause hypertension due to generalized vasoconstriction. However, even in patients who have been successfully weaned from chronic treatment with glucocorticosteroids, for one to two years afterwards a stressful situation (such as trauma, surgery or infection) may precipitate an acute adrenal crisis and necessitate the administration of large amounts of sodium chloride, glucocorticosteroids, glucose and water. Suppression of the adrenal cortex is unusual if the daily glucocorticosteroid dose is lower than the amount usually secreted physiologically. The rate at which patients can be weaned off glucocorticosteroids depends on their underlying condition and also on the dose and duration of therapy. After long-term glucocorticosteroid therapy has been discontinued the patient should continue to carry a steroid card for at least one year. At physiological concentrations, it plays little if any part in controlling blood glucose, but it does cause hyperglycaemia (and can precipitate frank diabetes mellitus) when administered in pharmacological doses. This is caused by enhanced gluconeogenesis combined with reduced sensitivity to insulin. Hydrocortisone is given (usually with fludrocortisone to replace mineralocorticoid) as replacement therapy in patients with adrenocortical insufficiency. High-dose intravenous hydrocortisone is used short term to treat acute severe asthma (usually followed by oral prednisolone) or autoimmune inflammatory diseases. Hydrocortisone cream is relatively low in potency and is of particular use on the face where more potent steroids are contraindicated. Key points Glucocorticosteroids ­ major side effects Adrenal suppression, reduced by once daily morning or alternate-day administration. The plasma t1/2 is approximately 90 minutes, but the biological t1/2 is longer (six to eight hours). Key points Glucocorticosteroids ­ pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics · They have a potent anti-inflammatory action which takes six to eight hours to manifest after dosing. They act as positive transcription factors for proteins involved in inhibition of the production of inflammatory mediators. Mineralocorticoid effects decrease as the antiinflammatory potency of synthetic glucocorticoids increases. Glucocorticosteroids have relatively short half-lives and are metabolized to inactive metabolites. Used in a wide range of inflammatory disorders of lung, gut, liver, blood, nervous system, skin and musculoskeletal systems, and for immunosuppression in transplant patients. The anti-inflammatory effect of prednisolone can improve inflammatory symptoms of connective tissue and vasculitic diseases (see Chapter 26), but whether this benefits the underlying course of the disease is often unclear. Treatment must therefore be re-evaluated regularly and if long-term use is deemed essential, the dose reduced to the lowest effective maintenance dose. Alternate-day dosing produces less suppression of the pituitary­adrenal axis, but not all diseases are adequately treated in this way. Prednisolone is considered in progressive rheumatoid arthritis when other forms of treatment have failed, or as an interim measure while a disease-modifying drug, such as methotrexate, has time to act. Low doses of prednisolone may be symptomatically useful in the short-term management of patients with severe articular symptoms from systemic lupus erythematosus and larger doses may be appropriate for limited periods in such patients with steroid-responsive forms of glomerulonephritis or with progressive central nervous system involvement. Other diseases where prednisolone may be indicated include severe asthma and some interstitial lung diseases. The immunosuppressant effect of prednisolone is further utilized in transplantation, usually in combination with ciclosporin or azathioprine, in order to prevent rejection (Chapter 50). Clinical features include nocturia, hypokalaemia, hypomagnesaemia, weakness, tetany, hypertension and sodium retention. Spironolactone and eplerenone are mineralocorticoid antagonists (see Chapters 31 and 36) that compete with aldosterone and other mineralocorticoids for the cytoplasmic mineralocorticosteroid receptor. They are used as potassium-sparing diuretics and to treat primary or secondary hyperaldosteronism in the contexts of hypertension and/or heart failure (Chapters 28 and 36). It binds to the mineralocorticoid steroid receptor and mimics the action of aldosterone. It undergoes significant presystemic metabolism, but unlike aldosterone is active by mouth. Uses Dexamethasone is powerfully anti-inflammatory, but is virtually devoid of mineralocorticoid activity. It has no glucocorticoid activity, but is about 1000 times more active than hydrocortisone as a mineralocorticoid. Aldosterone acts on the distal nephron, promoting Na /K exchange, causing sodium retention and urinary loss of potassium Adrenaline (epinephrine) is the main hormone produced by the adrenal medulla. It is used in emergency situations, such as cardiac arrest (Chapter 32), anaphylactic shock (Chapter 50) and other life-threatening disorders that require combined potent - and -agonist activity. It is used to prolong the action of local anaesthetics (via its vasoconstrictor action). Dipivefrine is a prodrug eye-drop formulation of adrenaline used to treat chronic open angle glaucoma (Chapter 52). Tumours of the adrenal medulla that secrete adrenaline and other pharmacologically active catecholamines (phaeochromocytoma) are treated surgically; in these patients preoperative blockade with phenoxybenzamine, a long-acting -blocker, followed by -blockade is essential. Glucocorticosteroids, primarily in the form of hydrocortisone (cortisol), are secreted in a diurnal pattern from the zona fasciculata. Case history A 32-year-old man presents after collapsing in the street complaining of severe lower abdominal pain. His relevant past medical history is that for 10 years he has had chronic asthma, which is normally controlled with 2-agonists and inhaled beclometasone 2000 g/day. Initial assessment shows that he has peritonitis, and emergency laparotomy reveals a perforated appendix and associated peritonitis. His immediate post-operative state is stable, but approximately 12 hours post-operatively he becomes hypotensive and oliguric. The hypotension does not respond well to intravenous dobutamine and dopamine and extending the spectrum of his antibiotics. By 16 hours post-operatively, he remains hypotensive on pressor agents (blood pressure 85/50 mmHg) and he becomes hypoglycaemic (blood glucose 2. Answer In a chronic asthmatic patient who is receiving high-dose inhaled steroids (and may have received oral glucocorticosteroids periodically), any severe stress. In this case, the development of refractory hypotension in a patient who is on antibiotics and pressors, and the subsequent hypoglycaemia, should alert one to the probability of adrenal insufficiency. This possibility is further supported by the low sodium, slightly increased potassium and elevated urea levels. The treatment consists of immediate administration of intravenous hydrocortisone and intravenous glucose. Hydrocortisone should then be given eight hourly for 24­48 hours, together with intravenous 0. With improvement, the patient could then be given twice his normal dose of prednisolone or its parenteral equivalent for five to seven days. This unfortunate clinical scenario could have been avoided if parenteral hydrocortisone was given preoperatively and every eight hours for the first 24 hours postoperatively. Glucocorticosteroids should be continued at approximately twice their normal dose for the next two to three days post-operatively, before reverting to his usual dose (clinical state permitting). The main hormones secreted by the ovary are oestradiol17, oestrone, progesterone and androgens. Oestrogens influence the development of secondary sexual characteristics, including breast development and the female distribution of fat, as well as ovulation during the reproductive years. From the start of menses until the menopause, the primary oestrogen is oestradiol-17, whereas in post-menopausal women oestrone predominates. Uses Oestrogens are used in: · oral contraception; · the treatment of symptoms of menopause; · the prevention of osteoporosis. Fractures of the spine, wrist and hips are reduced by 50­70% and there is about a 5% increase in spinal bone density in those women treated with oestrogen within three years of the onset of menopause and for five to ten years thereafter. Ethinylestradiol, a synthetic oestrogen, is an alternative for many of the above indications. Oestrogens are no longer used to suppress lactation because of the risk of thromboembolism. Salt and water retention with oedema, hypertension and exacerbation of heart failure can occur with pharmacological doses. Oestrogens are carcinogenic in some animals and there is an increased incidence of endometrial carcinoma in women who have uninterrupted treatment with exogenous oestrogen unopposed by progestogens. Pharmacokinetics Oestrogens are absorbed by mouth and via the skin and mucous membranes. The most potent natural oestrogen is oestradiol-17 which is largely oxidized to oestrone and then hydrated to produce oestriol. All three oestrogens are metabolized in the liver and excreted as glucuronide and sulphate conjugates in the bile and urine. Ethinylestradiol has a prolonged action because of slow hepatic metabolism with a half-life of about 25 hours. Progesterone is the precursor of 17-hydroxyprogesterone which is converted to androstenedione which subsequently is converted to testosterone, oestrone and oestradiol. Progesterone is produced in the adrenal glands, by the corpus luteum, the brain and by the placenta. There are two main groups of progestogens, namely the naturally occurring hormone progesterone and its analogues, and the testosterone analogues, such as norethisterone and norgestrel. All progestogens have antioestrogenic and anti-gonadotrophic properties, and differ in their potency and their side effects. The newer progestogens, desogestrel, gestodene and norgestimate produce good cycle control and have a less marked adverse effect on plasma lipids; however, studies have shown that oral contraceptives containing desogestrel and gestodene are associated with an increase of around two-fold in the risk of venous thromboembolism compared to those containing other progestogens and should be avoided in women with risk factors for thromboembolic disease. Desogestrel, drospirenone (a derivative of spironolactone with anti-androgenic and anti-mineralocorticoid properties) and gestodene should be considered for women who have side effects, such as acne, headache, depression, weight gain, breast symptoms and breakthrough bleeding with other progestogens. The progestogen norelgestromin is combined with ethinylestradiol in a transdermal contraceptive patch. Mechanism of action Progestogens act on intracellular cytoplasmic receptors and initiate new protein formation. Their main contraceptive effect is via an action on cervical mucus which renders it impenetrable to sperm. Nortestosterone derivatives are partially metabolized oestrogenic metabolites which may account for some additional anti-ovulatory effect. A pseudodecidual change in the endometrium further discourages implantation of the zygote. Uses of progesterone the uses of progesterone are: · to control anovulatory bleeding; · to prepare the uterine lining in infertility therapy and to support early pregnancy; · for recurrent pregnancy loss due to inadequate progesterone production; · in the treatment of intersex disorders, to promote breast development. Pharmacokinetics Progesterone is subject to presystemic hepatic metabolism and is most effective when injected intramuscularly or administered sublingually. Norethisterone, a synthetic progestogen used in many oral contraceptives, is rapidly absorbed orally, is subject to little presystemic hepatic metabolism and has a half-life of 7. It is the most consistently effective contraceptive method and allows sexual relations to proceed without interruption, but it lacks the advantage of protection against sexually transmitted disease that is afforded by condoms. Medroxyprogesterone acetate administered by depot injection is used when parenteral contraception is indicated. Progestogens currently used in combined oral contraceptives include desogestrel, gestodene and norgestimate. However, desogestrel and gestadene have been associated with an increased risk of venous thrombo-embolism. Jaundice similar to that of pregnancy cholestasis can occur, usually in the first few cycles. There is a decreased incidence of benign breast lesions and functional ovarian cysts. Amenorrhoea after stopping combined oral contraception is not unusual (about 5% of cases) but is rarely prolonged, and although there may be temporary impairment of fertility, permanent sterility is very uncommon. Users have an increased risk of venous thromboembolic disease, this risk being greatest in women over 35 years of age, especially if they smoke cigarettes, are obese and have used oral contraceptives for five years or more continuously. Progestogen-only pills may be appropriate in women at higher risk of thrombotic disease.

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Respiratory system ­ respiratory depression and a short period of apnoea is common causes for erectile dysfunction and its symptoms order aczone 60 mg fast delivery. There is an increased tendency to laryngeal spasm if anaesthesia is light and there is increased bronchial tone erectile dysfunction treatment in egypt 30 mg aczone order free shipping. Miscellaneous adverse effects ­ urticaria or anaphylactic shock due to histamine release varicocele causes erectile dysfunction discount aczone american express. Local tissue necrosis and peripheral nerve injury can occur due to accidental extravascular administration impotence hypnosis order aczone cheap online. Accidental arterial injection causes severe burning pain due to arterial constriction ginkgo biloba erectile dysfunction treatment buy aczone toronto, and can lead to ischaemia and gangrene. Thiopental should be avoided or the dose reduced in patients with hypovolaemia, uraemia, hepatic disease, asthma and cardiac disease. In patients with porphyria, thiopental (like other barbiturates) can precipitate paralysis and cardiovascular collapse. It is rapidly metabolized in the liver and extrahepatic sites, and has no active metabolites. Its uses include: · Intravenous induction ­ propofol is the drug of choice for insertion of a laryngeal mask, because it suppresses laryngeal reflexes. It is often used in conjunction with oxygen or oxygenenriched air, opioids and muscle relaxants. Although recovery is slower than that following a single dose, accumulation is not a problem. It is particularly useful in middle-ear surgery (where nitrous oxide is best avoided) and in patients with raised intracranial pressure (in whom volatile anaesthetics should be avoided). Adverse effects · Cardiovascular system ­ propofol causes arterial hypotension, mainly due to vasodilation although there is some myocardial depression. It should be administered particularly slowly and cautiously in patients with hypovolaemia or cardiovascular compromise. Adverse effects · Central nervous system ­ many central functions are depressed, including respiratory and cardiovascular centres. The sympathetic system is depressed to a greater extent than the parasympathetic system, and this can result in bradycardia. If opioids are also administered, as with other agents, the respiratory depression is more marked. It is a relatively safe anaesthetic from the viewpoint of acute cardiorespiratory effects since, unlike other intravenous anaesthetics, it is a respiratory and cardiac stimulant. Because of its ease of administration and safety, its use is widespread in countries where there are few skilled anaesthetists. It has been used for management of mass casualties or for anaesthesia of trapped patients to carry out amputations, etc. It is used in shocked patients, because unlike other intravenous anaesthetics it raises rather than lowers blood pressure. An intravenous dose produces anaesthesia within 30­60 seconds, which lasts for 10­15 minutes. An intramuscular dose is effective within three to four minutes, and has a duration of action of 15­25 minutes. There is a high incidence of hallucinations, nightmares and transient psychotic effects. Children cannot articulate such symptoms and it is disturbing that it is still used particularly in this age group. It has a more rapid onset of action than diazepam and a shorter duration of action, with a plasma half-life of 1. Midazolam causes amnesia, which is useful for procedures such as endoscopy or dentistry. The use of benzodiazepines for induction of anaesthesia is usually confined to slow induction of poor-risk patients. Prior administration of a small dose of midazolam decreases the dose of intravenous anaesthetic required for induction. Diazepam is used for premedication (oral), sedation (by slow intravenous injection) and as an anticonvulsant (intravenously). A preparation formulated as an emulsion in soyabean oil has reduced thrombophlebitis from intravenous diazepam. Its use has declined because it causes pain on injection, nausea and vomiting, and excitatory phenomena including extraneous muscle movements. Etomidate can suppress synthesis of cortisol (see below) and it should not be used for maintenance of anaesthesia. Addition of a small dose of volatile anaesthetic, benzodiazepine or propofol is required to avoid awareness during anaesthesia. High-dose opioids can cause chest wall rigidity interfering with mechanical ventilation. Fentanyl is rapidly and extensively metabolized, the t1/2 being two to four hours, the short duration of action (the peak effect lasts only 20­30 minutes) being explained by redistribution from brain to tissues. Particular care should be taken after multiple injections because of saturation of tissue stores. Fentanyl and the other potent opioids must not be used in situations where ventilation cannot be controlled. Neuroleptanalgesia is produced by a combination of a butyrophenone (droperidol) and an opioid (fentanyl). It is a state of inactivity and reduced response to external stimuli, sometimes used for complex diagnostic procedures. It has a short duration of action of five to ten minutes, and is often used as an infusion, but causes marked respiratory depression for some minutes. It has an ester linkage, making it susceptible to rapid hydrolysis by a number of non-specific esterases in blood and tissues. It is administered as an infusion and does not accumulate even after a three-hour infusion. It is a useful adjunct to anaesthetics, particularly in patients with renal or hepatic impairment. Most sedative and analgesic drugs are given by continuous intravenous infusion both for convenience of administration and for control. They also suppress the cough reflex and are respiratory depressants, which is useful in ventilated patients. Monitoring the level of sedation is particularly important in cases where long-acting opioids or benzodiazepines are being used whose action may be prolonged due to accumulation of drug and active metabolites. Propofol is increasingly used where shortterm sedation or regular assessment is required, because its lack of accumulation results in rapid recovery. Etomidate was used for intensive care sedation before it was shown to increase mortality by adrenocortical suppression. Inhalational agents, such as isoflurane, have also been successfully used to provide sedation. Occasionally, muscle relaxants are indicated in critically ill patients to facilitate ventilation. Atracurium is then the drug of choice and sedation must be adequate to avoid awareness. Modern induction methods are simple and not unpleasant, and the chief aim of premedication is now to allay anxiety in the patient awaiting surgery. Adequate premedication leads to the administration of smaller doses of anaesthetic than would otherwise have been required, thereby resulting in fewer side effects and improved recovery. Gastric prokinetic agents, anti-emetics and H2-receptor antagonists are used to enhance gastric emptying, decrease the incidence of nausea and vomiting, and reduce gastric acidity and volume in certain situations. All muscle relaxants are highly charged molecules and do not readily pass through plasma membranes into cells. They are usually administered intravenously and are distributed throughout the body by blood flow and diffusion. Changes in muscle blood flow or cardiac output can thus alter the speed of onset of neuromuscular blockade. At the end of a procedure, the concentration of relaxant at the end-plate decreases as the drug diffuses down a concentration gradient into the plasma. At this point, the effect of non-depolarizing drugs can be reversed by the injection of an anticholinesterase, such as neostigmine, which increases the amount of acetylcholine at the end-plate by preventing its breakdown by acetylcholinesterase. Atropine or glycopyrronium bromide is administered before neostigmine, to prevent the parasympathetic effects of acetylcholine by blocking muscarinic receptors. Respiratory acidosis, myasthenic syndromes and several drugs (including some -adrenoceptor blockers, aminoglycosides, furosemide, volatile anaesthetics and some tetracyclines) potentiate neuromuscular blockade. The muscle relaxants have poor penetration of the placental barrier, and normal doses do not affect the fetus or cross the blood­brain barrier. Key points Muscle relaxants in anaesthesia Pancuronium has a peak effect at three to four minutes following an intubating dose, and duration of action of 60­90 minutes. It is partly metabolized by the liver, but 60% is eliminated unchanged by the kidneys, so patients with reduced renal or hepatic function show reduced elimination and prolonged neuromuscular blockade. Pancuronium has a direct vagolytic effect, as well as sympathomimetic effects, which can cause tachycardia and slight hypertension. Vecuronium has an onset of action within three minutes, following an intubating dose. The duration of action is approximately 30 minutes, and can usually be reversed by anticholinesterases after only 15­20 minutes. It has little or no effect on heart rate and blood pressure, and does not liberate histamine. Vecuronium undergoes hepatic de-acetylation and the kidneys excrete 30% of the drug. Rocuronium bromide has the most rapid onset of any nondepolarizing muscle relaxant, and is only slightly slower than suxamethonium. Its duration of action is 30­45 minutes, but it is otherwise similar to vecuronium. Histamine release may cause flushing of the face and chest, local wheal and flare at the site of injection and, more rarely, bronchospasm and hypotension. During long surgical cases it can provide stable and readily reversible muscle relaxation. It is unique in that it is inactivated spontaneously at body temperature and pH by Hoffman elimination, a chemical process that requires neither hepatic metabolism nor renal excretion. This makes it the agent of choice for use in patients with significant hepatic and renal impairment. Cisatracurium, a stereoisomer of atracurium, has the advantage of causing less histamine release. Mivacurium has an onset time and propensity for histamine release similar to atracurium. Because it is metabolized Key points Non-depolarizing muscle relaxants · · these compete with acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. Examples include atracurium, vecuronium and pancuronium (longer duration of action). Prolonged paralysis occurs in patients with low plasma cholinesterase (genetically determined). It is contraindicated in patients with neuropathies, myopathies or severe burns, due to risk of hyperkalaemia. Solutions of suxamethonium are unstable at room temperature and must be stored at 4°C. Suxamethonium administered intravenously produces paralysis within one minute with good tracheal intubating conditions. Therefore suxamethonium is particularly useful when it is important to intubate the trachea rapidly, as in patients at risk of aspiration of gastric contents and patients who may be difficult to intubate for anatomical reasons. Suxamethonium is also used to obtain short-duration muscle relaxation as needed during bronchoscopy, orthopaedic manipulation and electroconvulsive therapy. The drug is metabolized rapidly by plasma cholinesterase, and recovery begins within three minutes and is complete within 15 minutes. The use of an anticholinesterase, such as neostigmine, is contraindicated because it inhibits plasma cholinesterase, reducing the rate of elimination of suxamethonium. All of the volatile anaesthetic agents and suxamethonium have been implicated in its causation. It consists of a rapid increase in body temperature of approximately 2°C per hour accompanied by tachycardia, increased carbon dioxide production and generalized muscle rigidity. Severe acidosis, hypoxia, hypercarbia and hyperkalaemia can lead to serious dysrhythmias. Treatment includes the following: · Anaesthetic should be discontinued and 100% oxygen administered via a vapour-free breathing system. This blocks the ryanodine receptor, preventing intracellular calcium mobilization and relieving muscle spasm. Adverse reactions · In about 1 in 2800 of the population, a genetically determined abnormal plasma pseudocholinesterase is present which has poor metabolic activity (see Chapter 14). Suxamethonium undergoes slow hydrolysis by nonspecific esterases in these patients, producing prolonged apnoea, sometimes lasting for several hours. Acquired deficiency of cholinesterase may be caused by renal disease, liver disease, carcinomatosis, starvation, pregnancy and cholinesterase inhibitors. However, unlike the genetic poor metabolizers, these acquired disorders only prolong suxamethonium apnoea by several minutes rather than several hours. They can also provide good-quality post-operative analgesia, especially when using continuous epidural infusions. A local anaesthetic may be the method of choice for patients with severe cardiorespiratory disease, as the risks of general anaesthesia and systemic narcotic analgesics are avoided. They consist of an aromatic group joined by an intermediate chain to an amine and are injected in their ionized water-soluble form.

Concurrent use of such diuretics therefore increases the risk of digoxin toxicity erectile dysfunction treatments diabetes buy 90 mg aczone overnight delivery. Conversely erectile dysfunction causes drugs order aczone amex, potassium-sparing diuretics may cause hyperkalaemia if combined with potassium supplements and/or angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (which reduce circulating aldosterone) impotence symptoms signs aczone 90 mg order line, especially in patients with renal impairment erectile dysfunction icd 9 code wiki aczone 30 mg purchase overnight delivery. Failure of oral contraception can result from concurrent use of antibiotics impotence 36 buy generic aczone online, due to this mechanism. Phenytoin reduces the effectiveness of ciclosporin partly by reducing its absorption. Distribution As explained above, interactions that involve only mutual competition for inert protein- or tissue-binding sites seldom, if ever, give rise to clinically important effects. Examples of complex interactions where competition for binding sites occurs in conjunction with reduced clearance are mentioned below. Metabolism Decreased efficacy can result from enzyme induction by a second agent (Table 13. Historically, barbiturates were clinically the most important enzyme inducers, but with the decline in their use, other anticonvulsants, notably carbamazepine and the antituberculous drug rifampicin, are now the most common cause of such interactions. These necessitate special care in concurrent therapy with warfarin, phenytoin, oral contraceptives, glucocorticoids or immunosuppressants. For example, a patient receiving warfarin may be admitted to hospital for an intercurrent event and receive treatment with an enzyme inducer. The intercurrent problem is resolved, the inducing drug discontinued and the patient discharged while taking the larger dose of warfarin. The time-course is often more rapid than for enzyme induction, since it depends merely on the attainment of a sufficiently high concentration of the inhibiting drug at the metabolic site. Xanthine oxidase is responsible for inactivation of 6-mercaptopurine, itself a metabolite of azathioprine. Severe exacerbations in asthmatic patients are often precipitated by chest infections, so an awareness of these interactions before commencing antibiotic treatment is essential. Clinically important impairment of drug metabolism may also result indirectly from haemodynamic effects rather than enzyme inhibition. This accounts for the increased lidocaine concentration and toxicity that is caused by -blocking drugs. Aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit secretion of methotrexate into urine, as well as displacing it from protein-binding sites, and can cause methotrexate toxicity. Many diuretics reduce sodium absorption in the loop of Henle or the distal tubule (Chapter 36). This leads indirectly to increased proximal tubular reabsorption of monovalent cations. Increased proximal tubular reabsorption of lithium in patients treated with lithium salts can cause lithium accumulation and toxicity. Digoxin excretion is reduced by spironolactone, verapamil and amiodarone, all of which can precipitate digoxin toxicity as a consequence, although several of these interactions are complex in mechanism, involving displacement from tissue binding sites, in addition to reduced digoxin elimination. In the past he had had a mitral valve replaced, and he had been on warfarin ever since. Two weeks later the patient was again admitted, this time drowsy and complaining of headache after mildly bumping his head on a locker. When rifampicin was stopped, enzyme induction gradually receded, but the dose of warfarin was not readjusted. Consequently, the patient became over-anticoagulated and developed a subdural haematoma in response to mild trauma. Replacment of clotting factors (present in fresh frozen plasma) is the quickest way to reverse the effect of warfarin overdose (Chapter 30). Primary drug Penicillin Competing drug Probenecid Effect of interaction Increased penicillin blood level Methotrexate Salicylates Bone marrow suppression Sulphonamides Salicylate Indometacin Digoxin Probenecid Probenecid Spironolactone Amiodarone Verapamil Salicylate toxicity Indometacin toxicity Increased plasma digoxin from urine. Key points · There are three main types of adverse interaction: ­ pharmaceutical; ­ pharmacodynamic; ­ pharmacokinetic. Pharmaceutical interactions are due to in vitro incompatibilities, and they occur outside the body. In principle, they should be easy to anticipate, but they can cause serious problems. They occur when one drug influences the way in which another is handled by the body: (a) absorption. London: Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britian, 2007. Prediction of in vivo drug­drug interactions from in vitro data: impact of incorporating parallel pathways of drug elimination and inhibitor absorption rate constant. Therapeutic drug monitoring of itraconazole and the relevance of pharmacokinetic interactions. The study of variation in drug responses under hereditary control is known as pharmacogenetics. Throughout this chapter, italics are used for the gene and plain text for the protein product of the gene. Inheritance may be autosomal recessive and such disorders are rare, although they are important because they may have severe consequences. However, there are also dominant patterns of inheritance that lead to much more common variations within the population. Different ethnic populations often have a different prevalence of the various enzyme polymorphisms. Pharmacogenetic variation was first described after the finding of a nine-fold range between individuals in the rate of oxidation of a sulphonylurea drug, tolbutamide. Such drugs include S-warfarin, losartan and celecoxib, as well as the sulphonylureas. These polymorphisms produce reduced enzyme activity and 3­5% of Caucasians and 15­20% of Asians have genotypes which yield a poor (slow) metabolizer phenotype. These include proton pump inhibitors (omeprazole, lansoprazole, pantoprazole) and some anticonvulsants. Acetylator polymorphism produces a bimodal distribution into fast and slow acetylators. Isoniazid hepatitis may be more common among rapid acetylators, but the data are conflicting. Approximately 40% of patients treated with procainamide for six months or longer develop antinuclear antibodies. Acetylator status may be measured using dapsone by measuring the ratio of monoacetyldapsone to dapsone in plasma following a test dose. Heterozygotes, as well as homozygotes, are rapid acetylators because rapid metabolism is autosomal dominant. The rapid acetylator phenotype is most common in Eskimos and Japanese (95%) and rarest among some Mediterranean Jews (20%). The polymorphic forms have reduced activity and contribute to the considerable variability in metabolism of these compounds. The effect is brief because suxamethonium is rapidly hydrolysed by plasma pseudocholinesterase. Effects of drug transporter polymorphisms on drug disposition depend on the individual drug and the genetic variant, and are still incompletely understood. Genetic variation in serotonin transporters influences the effects of antidepressants, such as fluoxetine and clomiprimine. This explains approximately 40% of the variability in warfarin dosing requirement. Serum concentrations were measured one to two hours after oral hydralazine doses of 25­100 mg in 24 slow and 11 fast acetylators. The most common variant which causes suxamethonium sensitivity occurs at a frequency of around one in 2500 and is inherited as an autosomal recessive. Reduced enzyme activity results in methaemoglobinaemia and haemolysis when red cells are exposed to oxidizing agents. If acute severe haemolysis occurs, primaquine may have to be withdrawn and blood transfusion may be needed. Hydrocortisone is given intravenously and the urine is alkalinized to reduce the likelihood of deposition of acid haematin in the renal tubules. The high incidence of this condition in some areas is attributed to a balanced polymorphism. It is postulated that the selective advantage conferred on heterozygotes is due to a protective effect of partial enzyme deficiency against falciparum malaria. HbM, HbH), the oxidized (methaemoglobin) form is not readily converted back into reduced, functional haemoglobin. Exposure to the above substances causes methaemoglobinaemia in individuals with these haemoglobin variants. Sufferers exhibit a rapid rise in temperature, muscular rigidity, tachycardia, increased respiratory rate, sweating, cyanosis and metabolic acidosis. There are several forms, one of the more common ones (characterized by halothane-induced rigidity) being inherited as a Mendelian dominant. The underlying abnormality is a variant in the ryanodine R1 receptor (Ry1R) responsible for controlling intracellular calcium flux from the sarcolemma. Muscle from affected individuals is abnormally sensitive to caffeine in vitro, responding with a strong contraction to low concentrations. Drugs do not precipitate acute attacks in porphyria cutanea tarda, a non-acute porphyria, although this condition is aggravated by alcohol, oestrogens, iron and polychlorinated aromatic compounds. These drugs include phenytoin, sulphonylureas, ethanol, griseofulvin, sulphonamides, sex hormones, methyldopa, imipramine, theophylline, rifampicin and pyrazinamide. Often a single dose of one drug of this type can precipitate an acute episode, but in some patients repeated doses are necessary to provoke a reaction. A very useful list of drugs that are unsafe to use in patients with porphyrias is included in the British National Formulary. Oestrogens impair bilirubin uptake and aggravate jaundice in patients with this condition, as does protracted fasting. She is initially started on oral prednisolone 30 mg/day and sulfasalazine 1 g four times a day with little improvement in her colitic symptoms. Her gastroenterologist, despite attempting to control her disease with increasing doses of her initial therapy, reverts to starting low-dose azathioprine at 25 mg three times a day and stopping her sulfasalazine. Two weeks later, on review, her symptoms of colitis have improved, but she has ulcers on her oropharynx with a sore mouth. Once her bone marrow has recovered (with or without haematopoietic growth factors), she could be restarted on very low doses. Drug therapy: pharmacogenomics ­ drug disposition, drug targets, and side effects. Thiopurine S-methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: insights, challenges and future directions. Primitive tribes used extracts containing active drugs such as opium, ephedrine, cascara, cocaine, ipecacuanha and digitalis. Many useless and sometimes deleterious treatments also persisted through the centuries, but the desperate situation of the sick and their faith in medicine delayed recognition of the harmful effects of drugs. Any deterioration following drug administration was usually attributed to disease progression, rather than to adverse drug effects. There were notable exceptions to this faith in medicine and some physicians had a short life expectancy as a consequence! Over the last 100 years, there has been an almost exponential growth in the number of drugs introduced into medicine. It was not until the 1960s that the appalling potential of drug-induced disease was realized world-wide. Thalidomide was first marketed in West Germany in 1956 as a sedative/ hypnotic, as well as a treatment for morning sickness. However, in 1961, it became clear that its use in early pregnancy was causally related to rare congenital abnormality, phocomelia, in which the long bones fail to develop. At least 600 such babies were born in England and more than 10 000 afflicted babies were born world-wide. The thalidomide tragedy stunned the medical profession, the pharmaceutical industry and the general public. Despite peer review, the incompetent or unscrupulous author can conceal deficiencies in design and possibly publish misleading data. The major medical journals are well refereed, although supplements to many medical journals are less rigorously reviewed for scientific value. An understanding of the essential elements of clinical trial design enables a more informed interpretation of published data. Diseases may resolve or relapse spontaneously, coincidental factors may confound interpretation, and the power of placebo and enthusiastic investigators are a major influence on subjective response. In order to minimize these factors and eliminate bias, any new treatment should be rigorously assessed by carefully designed, controlled clinical trials. All physicians involved in clinical trials must follow the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and subsequent amendments. Good Clinical Practice is an international ethical and scientific quality standard for designing, conducting, recording and reporting trials that involve the participation of human subjects. For example, does treatment A prolong survival in comparison with treatment B following diagnosis of small-cell carcinoma of the lung Less easily measured end-points such as quality of life must also be assessed as objectively as possible. Prespecified subgroups of patients may be identified and differences in response determined. For example, treatment A may be found to be most effective in those patients with limited disease at diagnosis, whereas treatment B may be most effective in those with widespread disease at diagnosis. Any physician conducting a clinical trial must not forget that the ultimate objective of all studies is to benefit patients. Using advances in combinatorial chemistry, biotechnology, genomics, high output screening and computer-aided drug design, new drugs can now be identified more rationally. Although there is considerable controversy concerning the value of some studies performed in animals, human drug development has an excellent safety record, and there is understandable reluctance on the part of the regulatory authorities to reduce requirements.

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