Hitesh Kapadia, D.D.S.

• Craniofacial Center, Department of Dentistry
• Seattle Children? Hospital
• Seattle, Washington

The patient is turned to the prone position prostate biopsy alternatives discount 60 ml rogaine 2 with visa, carefully padded man health recipe cheap rogaine 2 60 ml mastercard, and a hard-surface pillow is placed under the abdomen to allow proper chest expansion (see Video 22 prostate with grief generic rogaine 2 60 ml online. If the patient harbors a nephrostomy tube (usually placed due to sepsis or renal function impairment) mens health nutrition manual buy cheap rogaine 2 60 ml online, a ureteral catheter is not needed as the nephrostomy tube can be used to inject contrast in to the collecting system; only a Foley catheter in the bladder is necessary prostate 80cc discount 60 ml rogaine 2 overnight delivery. After sterile preparation, a mixture of contrast and/or air is injected through the ureteral catheter to aid in the identification of the most suitable posterior calyx for puncture. If retrograde pyelography is not feasible, then access is obtained under ultrasound guidance. This is usually accomplished by puncturing an upper or mid­upper calyx [30, 31] with an 18G Chiba needle. Should the wire not go down the ureter, an attempt to guide the wire down to the ureter is made with a 6F angiographic catheter. If successful, the floppy wire is replaced by a super-stiff wire and coiled in the bladder. If unsuccessful, no force should be exerted as this may result in unnecessary and disturbing bleeding or perforation. A second wire should be placed and coiled in the renal pelvis or calyx for safety. If the aim is to dilate up to 30F, balloon or Amplatz dilators are equally effective [32, 33]. In most cases a mini-access sleeve is needed; an 18­20F access sleeve is sufficient for a ureteroscope or flexible nephroscope (see Video 21. We usually dilate up to 18F when using just a flexible Chapter 22 Percutaneous Treatment of Ureteral Stones nephroscope, and 12­14F when using just a flexible ureteroscope. In the case of a unique ureteral stone with no concomitant renal stones, we usually use a flexible ureteroscope, and advance a 12F ureteral access sheath down to the ureter to gain safe direct ureteral access. If a previous nephrostomy tube was placed for acute reasons, the tract can be used to access the collecting system. However, the procedure should be performed only after the acute state has been resolved, usually about a week later. Flexible scopes are required to access the ureter if the nephrostomy tube was placed through a lower pole calyx. In such cases, use of the nephrostomy tube to fill the collecting system with contrast and air can aid in the selection of the best calyx for puncture. Lithotripsy can be performed with different modalities, including ultrasonic, mechanical, and laser energy. While ultrasonic lithotriptors enable concomitant fragmentation and suction, they can be deployed solely through semi-rigid endoscopes. Lasers on the other hand, can be deployed either through rigid or flexible scopes, and are the preferred modality with smalldiameter flexible ureteroscopes. Nitinol-covered baskets deployed through flexible scopes are recommended as they least impede scope deflection. Special care should be taken to clean all stone fragments in the obstructed area (see Video 21. A ureteral dilator is passed down the ureter over a guidewire following stone removal to ensure appropriate ureteral caliber. If ureteral stricture is detected, an endoureterotomy using the holmium laser is feasible, set at a higher frequency and intensity than the lithotripsy set-up. If the patient is a candidate for a "tubeless" procedure, we place a double-J stent antegradely [35, 36] with stitch closure of the puncture site (see Video 21. If needed, we leave a 5F ureteral catheter down the ureter through an 18F Foley catheter with a 257 hole in the tip located at the renal pelvis, for drainage and antegrade pyelography, or re-entry access. Results Contemporary stone-free rates for percutaneous antegrade treatment of ureteral stones are at least 86% [37­ 39]. In a randomized trial of patients with upper ureteral stones of greater than 1 cm in diameter, Sun et al. The low statistical power of the study may be the reason for the lack of statistical significance, despite the trend. A retrospective study of antegrade percutaneous ureteroscopy for upper ureteral stones of greater than 1 cm in diameter in 192 patients with severe hydronephrosis reported a 5% stricture rate [39]. A reported 44% stricture rate for retrograde ureteroscopy for upper ureteral stones was mostly due to ureteral injury and failure to completely release all stone fragments from the ureteral wall [22]. Nevertheless, close postoperative follow-up is important to ensure early identification of ureteral strictures, regardless of the approach selected. Valdivia supine position as the best option for percutaneous surgery of renal calculi in morbidly obese patients. The use of renal scintigraphy in assessing the potential for recovery in the obstructed renal tract in children. Comparative study of degree of renal trauma between Amplatz sequential fascial dilation and balloon dilation during percutaneous renal surgery in an animal model. Factors affecting blood loss during percutaneous nephrolithotomy: prospective study. Skin to stone distance is an independent predictor of stone-free status following shockwave lithotripsy. Comparison of conventional and step-wise shockwave lithotripsy in management of urinary calculi. Shock wave lithotripsy as a primary modality for treating upper ureteric stones: A 10-year experience. A prospective randomized study comparing shock wave lithotripsy and semirigid ureteroscopy for the management of proximal ureteral calculi. Percutaneous ureterolitholapaxy: the best bet to clear large bulk impacted upper ureteral calculi. Percutaneous antegrade removal of impacted upper-ureteral calculi: still the treatment of choice in developing countries. Impacted upper-ureteral calculi >1 cm: bind access and totally tubeless percutaneous antegrade removal or retrograde approach Antegrade ureterolitholapaxy in the treatment of obstructing or incarcerated proximal ureteric stones. Treatment of large impacted proximal ureteral stones: randomized comparison of percutaneous antegrade ureterolithotripsy versus retrograde ureterolithotripsy. Retrograde, antegrade, and laparoscopic approaches for the management 259 of large, proximal ureteral stones: a randomized clinical trial. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy for proximal ureteral calculi with severe hydronephrosis: Assessment of different lithotriptors. Varying percutaneous techniques have been developed with the goal of maximizing stone clearance while maintaining patient safety. Modifications have been described in patient positioning [2], site and number of percutaneous access tracts [3], and instrumentation used for endoscopy, stone fragmentation, and stone removal [4]. Significant stone burden can make both access and stone removal more technically demanding. Active infection can also be encountered unexpectedly, and this must be addressed in order to maximize patient safety. Preoperative urine cultures are mandatory to identify specific pathogens that can guide perioperative antibiotic coverage. These cultures are often difficult to interpret as many patients have indwelling ureteral stents or nephrostomy tubes already in place. Treatment of symptomatic patients with culture-specific oral antibiotics is mandatory prior to an elective procedure and we routinely treat asymptomatic patients with positive urine culture results to sterilize the urine prior to urologic instrumentation [5]. Patients who have unusual or resistant pathogens may require preadmission hospitalization for intravenous antibiotics prior to definitive therapy. Specific parameters regarding agent of choice and duration of perioperative therapy are often made in conjunction with our infectious disease colleagues. For asymptomatic patients with negative or colonized culture results, broad-spectrum antibiotics with adequate urinary tract penetration are preferred. In our practice, we most often utilize combination therapy with ampicillin (1­2 g) and gentamicin (5­7 mg/kg) to provide both Gram-positive and Gram-negative coverage. Alternatively, quinolones provide adequate coverage of urinary pathogens and can be used for patients with penicillin allergies. Cephalosporins can also be used in patients with mild penicillin allergies or in patients with renal insufficiency. Tracts are dilated to 30 atm, and occasionally, fascial incising needles are needed secondary to dense scar tissue in order to achieve full tract dilation. Balloon dilation is the preferred method of tract dilation at our institution in an effort to decrease the risk of bleeding that has been associated with sequential dilation [7, 8]. In our recent review of 225 patients using balloon dilation for single tract access, the mean decrease in hematocrit was 6. In situations where there is limited space due to a large stone burden, it is imperative to carefully position the balloon so that it remains in the collecting system without displacing the stone, losing access, or perforating the collecting system. There are also circumstances in which a staghorn calculus fills the entire collecting system, leaving no suitable area to gain access. Stone is cleared to access a posterior, upper or mid pole calyx, using holmium laser lithotripsy. The ureteroscope can then be used to guide and visualize the needle entering the chosen calyx. Flexible cystoscopy is performed and a guidewire is positioned in the renal pelvis under fluoroscopic guidance. Normal saline irrigation is then instilled through the ureteral occlusion catheter to fill the collecting system and create a "pseudohydronephrosis. After a site is chosen, percutaneous access is obtained using a standard triangulation method with an 18G Chiba needle. Access is confirmed using fluoroscopy as well as with the return of air and irrigation fluid from the needle lumen. A guidewire is then advanced in to the renal pelvis with the primary goal of obtaining access in to the bladder. Difficulties advancing the guidewire down the ureter can be encountered due to significant stone burden or stone impaction, most commonly at the ureteropelvic junction. In these situations, ureteral access may not be possible, and as an alternative, redundant guidewire is "curled" in the renal pelvis to facilitate tract dilation. Tract dilation can be performed via single- Urologist versus radiologist obtained access the decision process in selecting the ideal calyx for access is fundamental in achieving the goals of maximal stone clearance and procedure safety. Often, preoperative or perioperative access is obtained by interventional radiologists for various reasons, including acute obstruction and/or infection, patient body habitus, atypical renal anatomy, prior urologic intervention/reconstruction, or surgeon preference. The complication rates were similar between groups, but the overall stone-free rate was significantly greater in the urology access group (99% vs 92. In cases of access performed by radiologists, additional urologist-obtained access was required in 36. This is difficult to interpret as the primary goal of radiologist-obtained access was often to relieve acute obstruction, and not to facilitate future therapeutic management. Regardless, urologist-obtained access in high-volume stone centers can facilitate stone-free rates, ranging from 83% to 86% 262 Section 2 Percutaneous Renal Surgery: Stone Removal supracostal approach only in appropriately selected patients. Single versus multiple access tracts Treatment of complex or staghorn calculi can be approached with multiple percutaneous tracts during a single operative procedure [18, 19] or with a single tract approach in combination with flexible instrumentation [20]. It is controversial as to which of these approaches offers superior stone clearance while minimizing patient morbidity. Utilizing multiple tracts in a single session is advocated by some authors because it is often difficult to access all of the renal calyces to treat the entire stone burden through a single tract. Additional supplemental tracts are placed for residual peripheral calyceal stones. Guidewires are placed to stabilize the tracts and the main tract is dilated to place a 26F or 28F Amplatz sheath. Lithotripsy is maintained for 90 min and a second stage is performed 48­72 h later if necessary. Despite the potential advantages of improved stone clearance and less hospital cost with a single procedure, there are concerns with utilizing multiple percutaneous access points as well. The primary concern is for increased risk of intraoperative or postoperative hemorrhage and subsequent need for blood transfusion. Blood transfusion rates range from 3% to 45% in the literature with multiple tract access [19], although transfusion requirements have been shown to decrease with increasing surgeon experience [21]. Attempts to minimize the risk of bleeding have been addressed by limiting sheath size and dilating the secondary tracts later in the procedure only if needed. Using this approach, they obtained a stone clearance rate of 93% with a 3% transfusion rate. Despite higher transfusion rates with the multitract approach, the risk of other major complications does not seem to significantly differ when compared to single tract procedures [18, 23]. They reviewed 20 patients in each group and found that despite a higher transfusion rate in the multitract cohort, the mean drop in hemoglobin was similar between groups. They attribute this to the fact that the patients in the multitract group had significantly lower baseline hemoglobin values. Bleeding Access location Choice regarding the ideal calyx for percutaneous access is dependent on patient anatomy, stone burden, and individual surgeon preference. Accessing the upper pole allows for direct access to the majority of the collecting system as well as the upper ureter. This location is often necessary to treat staghorn calculi, large renal pelvic stones, and upper ureteric calculi [14, 15]. Although the upper pole often provides the most direct access to treat large or complex stone burdens, there is an increased risk of pulmonary complications, including hemothorax, hydrothorax, and pneumothorax, especially if an intercostal approach is utilized [15]. Several groups have examined the safety and efficacy of supracostal upper pole access [14­17]. They agree that this approach provides for excellent stone clearance while maintaining patient safety. These results were compared to 39 patients with subcostal access; 29 (74%) were stone free, three had major complications, and eight had minor complications.

In that regard prostate cancer in women order 60 ml rogaine 2 otc, patients should be able to tolerate continuation of anticoagulation with minimal risk of bleeding prostate spet-085 hair loss 60 ml rogaine 2 with amex. Similar to cystoscopy prostate 5x cheap rogaine 2 online master card, there is a paucity of literature to describe the risk of bleeding during these diagnostic procedures prostate 80 grams purchase rogaine 2 with amex. When combined with either biopsy or stone manipulation prostate oncology on canvas order 60 ml rogaine 2 amex, the risk of bleeding may increase. No difference in stonefree rates, intraoperative or postoperative complications, or hemorrhagic or thromboembolic complications were found. None of the patients receiving anticoagulation required early termination of the procedure due to bleeding. Twenty-five patients with bleeding diathesis, including warfarin use, treated for ureteral or renal stone disease were reviewed by Watterson et al. In conclusion, stone manipulation with ureteroscopy and laser manipulation appears to have similar success in those patients on anticoagulation and those who are not. Laparoscopy A description of the full scope of the physiologic effects of laparoscopy is beyond the scope of this chapter. However, uncontrolled coagulopathy is a contraindication to performing laparoscopic surgery. Guidelines for intervention in a laparoscopic setting are similar to those for open surgery, and temporary cessation of anticoagulation or bridge therapy are the hallmarks of management. There was no difference in transfusion rate, but a slightly increased intraoperative blood loss and drop in hematocrit in the patients on anticoagulation. There were five thrombotic events in the anticoagulation group and none in the control group. Due to the invasive nature of the procedure and risk of hem- 58 Section 1 Basic Principles the benefit of heparin prophylaxis in this cohort of patients given the conflicting results regarding increased bleeding risk. However, patients falling in to the high-risk and highest-risk categories should be considered for pharmacologic prophylaxis. However, there was a higher incidence of postoperative bleeding as well as transfusion rate. With appropriate management of the anticoagulation, both radical and partial laparoscopic nephrectomy can be performed safely on patients who require long-term anticoagulation. Currently, there is no strong evidence to support an increased risk of postoperative bleeding or need for transfusion. Patients should be stratified in to low-, intermediate-, high-, and highest-risk categories based upon age and comorbidities (Table 5. It is unclear as to Conclusions the management of anticoagulation for endoscopic and laparoscopic urologic procedures is a complex challenge for the clinician. Individual treatment plans for patients need to be developed based on risk stratification for thromboembolic events, the type of anticoagulant, reason for therapy, and the invasiveness and character of surgery. In all instances, risk stratification of the patient is critical in determining the optimal treatment modality. In some circumstances, anticoagulation may be stopped altogether; in others, patients can proceed to surgery while on anticoagulant therapy or bridging therapy with heparin may be necessary. Urologists must therefore be aware of the intricacies of these issues and be prepared to discuss them with their patients to provide optimal care. The perioperative management of antithrombotic therapy: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines, 8th edn. Grading strength of recommendations and quality of evidence in clinical guidelines: report from an american college of chest physicians task force. Low risk Minor surgery in patients <40 years with no additional risk factors Minor surgery in patients with additional risk factors Surgery in patients aged 40­60 years with no additional risk factors High risk Surgery in patients >60 years Surgery in patients aged 40­60 years with additional risk factors (prior venous thromboembolism, cancer, hypercoagulable state) Highest risk Surgery in patients with multiple risk factors (age >40 years, cancer, prior venous thromboembolism) Moderate risk Chapter 5 Management of Anticoagulation Therapy in Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Urologic Surgery 59 8. Clinical evidence for rebound hypercoagulability after discontinuing oral anticoagulants for venous thromboembolism. Incidence and predictors of drug-eluting stent thrombosis during and after discontinuation of thienopyridine treatment. Bipolar transurethral resection of the prostate causes less bleeding than the monopolar technique: a single-centre randomized trial of 202 patients. Each kidney has a characteristic shape, with a superior and an inferior pole, a convex border placed laterally, and a concave medial border. The medial border has a marked depression, the hilum, containing the renal vessels and renal pelvis. Perirenal coverings the kidney surface is enclosed in a continuous covering of fibrous tissue, the renal capsule ("true renal capsule"). This perirenal fat is enclosed by the renal fascia (the so-called fibrous renal fascia of Gerota). The anterior and posterior layers of the renal fascia (fascia of Gerota) subdivide the retroperitoneal space in to three potential compartments: (1) the posterior pararenal space, which contains only fat; (2) the intermediate perirenal space, which contains the suprarenal glands, kidneys, and proximal ureters, together with the perirenal fat; and (3) the anterior pararenal space, which unlike the posterior and intermediate spaces, extends across the midline from one side of the abdomen to the other. Renal morphometry In adults, the left kidney is larger than the right, and this agrees withmorphometric findings in fetal kidneys [1]. Moreover, since the psoas major muscle has a cone shape, the kidneys also are dorsally inclined on the longitudinal axis. These anatomic descriptions of the renal fascia show that the right and left perirenal spaces are potentially separated and, therefore, it is exceptional that a complication of an endourologic procedure. Laterally, the two layers of the renal fascia fuse behind the ascending and descending colons. Medially, the posterior fascial layer is fused with the fascia of the spine muscles. It can also be seen that usually the posterior surface of the right kidney is crossed by the 12th rib and the left kidney by the 11th and 12th ribs. P, posterior pararenal space, which contains only fat; I, intermediate perirenal space, which contains the suprarenal glands, kidneys, and proximal ureters, together with the perirenal fat; and A, anterior pararenal space, which unlike the posterior and intermediate spaces, extends across the midline from one side of the abdomen to the other, and contains the ascending and descending colons, duodenal loop, and pancreas. This shows that the two layers of the renal fascia fuse above the suprarenal gland and end fused with the infradiaphragmatic fascia (long arrow). Note a dependence of the fascia separating the suprarenal gland from the kidney (short arrow). In this way, the posterior aspect of the diaphragm (posterior leaves) arches in a dome above the superior pole of the kidneys, on each side. Also, it can be expected that the pleura is transversed without symptoms in most intercostal approaches [4]. Regardless of the degree of respiration (mid or full expiration), the risk of injury to the lung from a 10th intercostal percutaneous approach to the kidney is prohibitive [4]. Any intercostal puncture should be made in the lower half of the intercostal space, in order to avoid injury to the intercostal vessels above. Therefore, it should be remembered that a kidney puncture performed high in the abdomen will allow little space for the needle entrance [4]. If the intrarenal puncture is performed when the patient is in mid or full inspiration, the risk of injury to the liver and spleen is increased [4]. Relationship of kidneys to the diaphragm, ribs, and pleura the kidneys lie on the psoas and quadratus lumborum muscles. The arrows point to the diaphragmatic attachments to the extremities of the 11th and 12th ribs. M, medial arcuate ligament; L, lateral arcuate ligament; ql, quadratus lumborum muscle; pm, psoas muscle. Relationship of kidneys to the ascending and descending colons the ascending colon runs from the ileocolic valve to the right colic flexure (hepatic flexure), where it passes in to the transverse colon. The hepatic colic flexure (hepatic angle) lies anteriorly to the inferior portion of the right kidney. The descending colon extends inferiorly from the left colic flexure (splenic flexure) to the level of the iliac crest. It is important to consider the position of the retroperitoneal ascending and descending colons. Therefore, with the patient in the prone position and before any invasive percutaneous renal procedure, retrorenal colon should be looked for, especially around the inferior poles of the kidney, using fluoroscopy [5]. This shows the branching of the renal arteries and their official nomenclature according to kidney region. Intrarenal vessels Intrarenal arteries Generally, the main renal artery divides in to an anterior and a posterior branch after giving off the inferior suprarenal artery. This shows the renal vasculature from the level of the interlobar arteries to the glomerular level. This shows the three systems of longitudinal anastomotic arcades; from lateral (periphery) to medial (hilar): stellate veins (curved arrow), arcuate veins (short arrow), and interlobar veins (long arrow). Intrarenal veins the intrarenal veins, unlike the arteries, do not have a segmental model. Moreover, in contrast to the arteries, there is free circulation throughout the venous system, with ample anastomoses between the veins. These anastomoses, therefore, prevent parenchymal congestion and ischemia in case of venous injury [7]. Within the kidney substance, these arches are arranged in arcades, which lie mainly in the longitudinal axis. We have named these anastomoses as first order, second order, and third order, from periphery to center [7]. A detailed description of the kidney collecting system (the pelviocalyceal system), as well as the anatomic relationships between the intrarenal arteries and veins with the kidney collecting system, which are of utmost importance for endourology, is given below. We have proposed a pelviocalyceal classification, including all morphologic types of collecting systems, which we believe is helpful for standardizing patients and procedures [9]. Basic intrarenal anatomy the renal parenchyma basically consists of two kinds of tissue, the cortical tissue and medullar tissue. The renal medulla is formed by several inverted cones, surrounded by a layer of cortical tissue on all sides (except at the apices). The cortical tissue is made up of the glomeruli with proximal and distal convoluted tubules. A single mc drains only one papilla and a compound mc drains two or three papillae. Finally, the infundibula, which are considered the primary divisions of the pelviocalyceal system, drain in to the renal pelvis. Classification of the pelviocalyceal system the analysis of 140 endocasts led us to a division in to two major groups (with two intermediate varieties in each major group). This division was based on superior pole, inferior pole, and kidney midzone (hilar) calyceal drainage. Group A is composed of pelviocalyceal systems that have two major calyceal groups (superior and inferior) as a primary division of the renal pelvis and a midzone calyceal drainage dependent on these two major groups (62. Group B is composed of pelviocalyceal systems with kidney midzone (hilar) calyceal drainage independent of both the superior and inferior calyceal groups (37. This group also includes two different types of pelviocalyceal system: · Type B-I (21. We found pelviocalyceal systems with morphologic bilateral symmetry in the same individual in only 37. Although our pelviocalyceal classification includes all morphologic types of calyces and renal pelvices, in performing endourologic procedures it is important to be aware that the collecting system anatomy is very variable. To assist endourologists in forming a mental image of the collecting system in three dimensions and learning the exact spatial position of the calyces, before obtaining the pelviocalyceal system endocast, iodinated contrast was injected in to the ureter of 40 of our cases to opacify the collecting system in order to obtain a pyelogram. After radiography, the contrast was removed and the collecting system was filled with a polyester resin to obtain a 3D endocast. These 40 kidneys enabled a comparative study between the radiographic images and their corresponding 3D endocasts. This identified some remarkable anatomic aspects of the kidney collecting system that need to be considered during endourologic procedures. Stones in such minor calyces viewed on standard anteroposterior radiographic images can appear as if they were placed in the pelvis or a major calyx. Thus, this anatomic detail must be considered in cases of stones that do not alter renal function and can appear as if they are in the renal pelvis or a major calyx. In this situation, a complementary radiologic study with lateral and oblique films must be performed to determine accurately the position and extent of the stones [11, 12]. Regarding percutaneous removal, direct access in to the calyx containing the stone is easy; nevertheless, it involves a puncture without consideration of the arterial and venous anatomic relationships to the collecting system, which carries a high risk of injuring a vascular structure [12]. Therefore, in cases of stone in such calyces, safe access, techniques, and instruments should be used. The asterisk denotes the interpelviocalyceal space; the arrowhead points to a minor calyx perpendicular to and superimposed on the surface of a superior major calyx, which cannot be seen on the pyelogram; and the open arrow points to an anterior minor calyx superimposed on the posterior minor calyx. It can be difficult to make the distinction between these features on a pyelogram. Regardless of the form assumed by the interpelviocalyceal space, it is the result of crossed calyces in the mid kidney. When the crossed calyces were in the mid kidney, the calyx draining in to the inferior calyceal group was in the ventral position in 87. If the intention is to access the renal pelvis via a crossed calyx or to access a crossed calyx via the renal pelvis, it is useful to remember that the calyx draining in to the inferior calyceal group is almost always in the ventral position. It is also worthy of remark that detection of an interpelviocalyceal region on the pyelograms is an indirect sign of crossed calyces in the kidney midzone. Position of the calyces relative to the lateral kidney margin In 39 of the 140 endocasts (27. The arrow points to the calyx which is draining in to the inferior calyceal group in the ventral position (87. Since the first choice of access to the collecting system is through a posterior calyx, much effort has been made to determine preoperatively which calyces are anterior and which posterior. Previous studies have presented contradictory results and lead to misunderstanding of this subject [15]. We have described the type of kidney collecting system found in the majority of the endocasts, in which the calyces are disposed in various positions (superimposed or alternately distributed), and can affirm that the position of the calyces cannot be defined as more lateral or more medial. This shows that the posterior calyces (arrows) have a more lateral (peripheral) position than the anterior calyces.

With further improvements in materials and endoscope design prostate cancer doctor rogaine 2 60 ml order online, the ability of the endourologist of tomorrow to diagnose and treat pathologic conditions affecting the urinary tract will continue to improve androgen hormone oestrogen buy online rogaine 2. It will not be long before all major endoscope manufacturers produce a distal sensor ureteroscope man health 4 you rogaine 2 60 ml purchase amex, and the endoscope of the future prostate cancer journals cheap rogaine 2 60 ml buy on line, whether rigid or flexible prostate zones mri cheap generic rogaine 2 uk, will contain no viewing lens component. Disposable ureteroscopes Technical failure of the flexible ureterorenoscope most commonly occurs in the region of the active deflection unit and once damaged, the ureteroscope, if repairable, will require either a costly fix or even a replacement. It is therefore conceivable that an inexpensive, small caliber, disposable flexible instrument with similar deflection capabilities might decrease the initial outlay and overall investment. In 1987, Bagley reported the use of a flexible modular ureteropyeloscope in 38 patients [65]. The instrument was successfully passed in to the ureter in all but one patient, supporting the wider application of the equipment. The disposable ureteroscope consisted of a reusable eyepiece and semi-flexible shaft with a 3. The results showed that the disposable flexible ureteroscope had the highest active tip deflection, though the downside was that it had the greatest reduction in deflection with the introduction of a working instrument. The purchase price Three-dimensional ureteroscopy Current endoscopic systems provide an image output in two dimensions with stereoscopic or threedimensional (3D) imaging existing only in the domain of robotic and, rarely, laparoscopic surgery. The advantages of 3D imaging during ureteroscopic procedures however, have not been confirmed and the additional costs may not be offset if the benefits prove to be small. Although it is early days for this technology, this technique may prove to be useful as a noninvasive way of surveilling the urinary tract. Conventional high pressure versus newly developed continuous-flow ureterorenoscope: urodynamic pressure evaluation of the renal pelvis and flow capacity. Intrarenal access with the flexible ureteropyeloscope: Effects of active and passive tip deflection. Comparison of optical resolution with digital and standard fiberoptic cystoscope in an in vitro model. Comparison of resolution, contrast, and color differentiation among fiberoptic and digital flexible cystoscopes. A small-caliber fiberscope for the visualization of the urinary tract, biliary tract, and spinal canal. Recent development for pyeloureteroscopy: guide tube method for its introduction in to the ureter. Transurethral ureteroscopy in women: a ready addition to the urological armamentarium. Intrarenal access with the flexible ureteropyeloscope: effects of active and passive tip deflection. Ureteric access with flexible ureteroscopes: effect of the size of the ureteroscope. Comparison of the mechanical flow, and optical properties of contemporary flexible ureteroscopes. Improved functional deflection and access to lower pole renal calculi with new dual deflection flexible ureteroscope [abstract 29]. Flow, pressure and deflection characteristics of flexible deflectable ureterorenoscopes. Evaluating flexible ureteroscope strength: buckling pressures and strength of deflection [abstract 28]. Durability of next generation flexible fiberoptic ureteroscopes: A randomised prospective multi-institutional clinical trial. Does the cleaning technique influence the durability of the <9F flexible ureteroscope Flexible ureteroscopes: a single centre evaluation of the durability and function of the new endoscopes smaller than 9Fr. Durability of the next-generation flexible fiberoptic ureteroscopes: a randomised prospective multi-institutional clinical trial. The management of renal caliceal calculi with a newly designed ureteroscope: a rigid ureteroscope with a deflectable tip. In vitro comparison of a flexible ureteroscope and conventional flexible ureteroscopes. The advent of flexible and semi-rigid ureteropyeloscopy has lead to less invasive treatment options for the upper collecting system. Over the course of time, lead by the interaction between engineering and medicine, the instrumentation and technique of endourology has continued to be refined and improved. The C-arm device is positioned on the other side of the patient to allow for free movement of the image intensifier from the kidney to the pelvis. On occasion, if there is uncertainty as to whether the pathology may require a percutaneous approach, the patient may be positioned in a prone split-leg position, so that it is easy to proceed with posterior percutaneous renal access if needed [5]. Ureteral access the use of a safety wire is encouraged for all urologic endoscopic procedures, though some authors suggest it is not needed if active stone basketing is not planned as part of the procedure [6]. Guidewires facilitate and maintain access to the upper urinary tract and may straighten an otherwise tortuous path. The ideal guidewire would require little force to bend in response to obstruction, and a large force to perforate through tissue. A standard guidewire would also have a fairly stiff mid-shaft to straighten the ureter and facilitate coaxial passage of other devices (sheaths, stents, etc. It would have a floppy tip on the external end to facilitate atraumatic Patient preparation After induction of anesthesia, the patient is placed in a lithotomy position with the ipsilateral leg slightly extended [2]. Though recommended primarily for patients with a moderate risk of thromboembolism [3], we routinely utilize pneumatic compression boots in all patients in the lithotomy position to decrease the risk of deep venous thrombosis and of intracompartment pressure [4]. The C-arm monitor, video monitor, and holmium laser machine are positioned on one side of the patient such that little movement by the surgeon is required to view the C-arm and endoscopic images, or operate the laser foot pedal. It is helpful to utilize software that draws the fluoroscopic image in to a "picture-in-picture" format on the endoscopic image. The Bard Sensor guidewire (Boston Scientific) is a hybrid wire that combines these components; a hydrophilic distal tip, shift shaft (nitinol core with polytetrafluoroethylene coating), and floppy proximal tip [8]. If resistance is encountered, a 5F open-ended catheter is advanced to the level of resistance under fluoroscopic guidance and retrograde pyelography is performed to delineate the ureteral anatomy. For coaxial passage of ureteral access sheaths and large caliber stents and catheters, an Amplatz super-stiff guidewire kinking (Boston Scientific) is utilized to minimize the risk of wire buckling. A 12/14F ureteral access sheath is the standard size utilized for adults, as studies have demonstrated that this internal diameter optimizes irrigant flow and intrapelvic pressures [17]. If the sheath does not go up the ureter, the inner dilator can be used without the outer sheath to dilate the ureter over a super-stiff guidewire. If unsuccessful, a ureteral balloon (see below) through the sheath may be used or a ureteral stent placed to passively dilate the ureter. Torqueable catheters At times the ability to guide a wire past a point of particular tortuosity may prove beneficial to establish secure guidewire access. One alternative would be to utilize an angled-tip guidewire and a torque device which attaches to the external end of the wire. Rotating the torque device reorients the tip of the wire to direct it towards the anticipated path of the lumen as outlined on retrograde pyelography. It also creates a vaporization bubble that subsequently destabilizes and decomposes the stone [20]. Laser energy is brought to the target (stones) with the aid of laser fibers, which are thin and flexible, optimal characteristics for passing through the working channel of a flexible ureteroscope. Studies on performance and safety of commercially available holmium laser fibers demonstrated that the Dornier Lightguide 200 was the Ureteral access sheaths Ureteral access sheaths facilitate expeditious and atraumatic entry and re-entry to the upper collecting system with the flexible ureteroscope, while eliminating the risk of buckling of the endoscope in the bladder. The use of a ureteral access sheath has been demonstrated to decrease operative time and cost, minimize patient morbidity, and optimize overall success of flexible ureteroscopy [9]. Specifically, a retrospective case series has demonstrated superior stone-free rates in a contemporary series of patients undergoing ureteroscopy with the use of an access sheath compared to no access sheath [10]. The access sheath also protects the upper urinary tract from increased peak intrarenal pressure, even with irrigant pressurized to 200 cmH2O, as it allows efflux of irrigant through the sheath and around the ureteroscope, maintaining intrapelvic pressures below 20 cmH2O [11]. Finally, some authors have suggested that the use of a ureteral access sheath decreases the risk of endoscope damage [12]. In vitro and randomized clinical studies have demonstrated that the Cook Flexor sheath (Cook Urological, 390 Section 3 Ureteroscopy: General Principles peratures and turns in to a gel at body temperature. Warm irrigation must be utilized during the procedure, then cold saline is instilled to liquefy the polymer at the completion of lithotripsy. The study showed that this polymer was efficient in stabilizing the stone during laser or pneumatic lithotripsy; moreover, no adverse events were associated with its use compared to conventional ureterolithotripsy [35]. Each of these devices and techniques requires additional manipulation prior to ureteral lithotripsy, so the benefit of their use should be weighed against the additional risks of perforation in the face of a large ureteral stone. Specifically, their use may be most warranted in situations where pneumatic lithotripsy is planned and the risk of migration is higher, or if there is significant hydroureteronephrosis above the stone, or if there is limited availability of flexible ureteroscopy to retrieve stones that migrate. The 365-m laser fiber is more durable and results in the best stone fragmentation efficiency [24]. However, the increase in size leads to a decrease in active deflection of the flexible ureteroscope; only 7­16% of maximum deflection (-9o to -19o) is lost with the 200-m fiber compared to 18­37% (-24o to -45o) of maximum deflection with the 365-m fiber [25, 26]. Pneumatic lithotripsy has the advantage, especially in areas where resources are limited, of low maintenance and disposable costs. The disadvantages of pneumatic lithotripsy are the increased risk of stone migration and the inability to apply this modality through a flexible ureteroscope. Collapse of the cavitation bubble leads to a second shock wave, which if asymmetric leads to the formation of a liquid jet. However, the safety of the device is the primary concern, with one series reporting a 3% conversion rate to open surgery due to ureteral perforation in conjunction with a stone-free rate of only 58% at 3 months [29]. Stone retrieval devices A stone retrieval device is an essential instrument in ureteroscopy. Each device can be evaluated and distinguished by its ability to be visualized during stone manipulation, to provide radial force to open in the ureter, and to capture, retain, or, if necessary, disengage a stone. Alligator or rat tooth forceps are preferred by some due to their reversible grasp and reusability; however, their large size and weak grasp impact their effectiveness [36]. Nitinol-based baskets are more versatile due to the unique pliability of the wires and the flexibility that allows full lower pole deflection of a flexible ureteroscope in the majority of cases [37, 38]. The Cook N-Compass (Cook Urological) with its webbed configuration is designed to optimize the retrieval of multiple small (1 mm or less) stone fragments that may result from lithotripsy of a large burden intrarenal stone. The Bard Dimension basket (Boston Scientific) has a unique lever that extends two wires to "deflect" the cage of the basket. It has been proposed that this facilitates Ureteral occluding devices A variety of devices have been developed to prevent stone migration during intracorporeal lithotripsy. The Stone Cone (Boston Scientific) consists of concentric coils which act to prevent proximal retropulsion of stone fragments, and it has proved to reduce the incidence of residual stone fragments greater than 3 mm in size [30]. Each device is designed to release any larger fragments as the device is withdrawn. It has been demonstrated that the Stone Cone releases the stone with a mean force of 0. In vitro studies have evaluated a biogel polymer that is delivered using a 3F ureteral catheter above the stone to occlude the more proximal ureter. The triblock polymer of polyethylene oxide is a liquid at low tem- Chapter 35 Ureteroscopy Working Instruments 391 retrieval of stones in hard to reach calyces and stone release if needed [42]. However other investigators have reported that this affords no advantage for either stone capture or release [43]. It has been proposed that they provide a better ability to grasp and release the stone [44]. In addition, it allows rotation of an engaged stone via a rotary wheel on the basket handle, and simultaneous laser lithotripsy, as a 200-m laser fiber can be passed alongside the Halo basket; a technique that is utilized if a stone is too large for removal down the ureter. These two devices are of particular interest in cases of entrapped ureteral or renal stones where laser lithotripsy prior to stone capture cannot be accomplished. This endoscope offers superior deflection and irrigation characteristics, in particular when larger 2. A comparative study of available flexible ureteroscopes showed that the Wolf Viper provides superior irrigant flow, and better visualization through the unique fused quartz bundle compared to glass fiberoptic bundles [49]. The absence of optic fibers in the shaft of the flexible scope allows for better deflection and simplifies the instrument, which may lower costs, and improves maneuverability and durability [54]. The authors concluded that Ureteral balloon dilators Ureteral balloon dilation is utilized in approximately 5% of cases, when the ureteral access sheath will not advance to the site of pathology due to ureteral stricture, spasm, or a tight ureteral orifice. Ideally, a ureteral balloon would dilate to 100% of the expected diameter regardless of any amount of radial constrictive force. The Bard X-force balloon dilator, the only balloon rated to 30 atm inflation pressure, was not evaluated in this study. Flexible ureteroscopes (see also Chapter 34) Current flexible ureteroscopes offer increased lower pole access through exaggerated active deflection compared to older passively deflecting scopes. Some achieve this by incorporating separate dual-lever primary and secondary active deflection that offers increased unidi- 392 Section 3 Ureteroscopy: General Principles exerted the least impulse on a stone, decreasing the likelihood of dislocating the stone during the endoscopic surgery [58]. Though pressurized saline bags were not as efficient at clearing the operative field, they did result in less migration than hand-held or foot pedal devices. Disposable flexible ureteroscopes A new cost-effective technology is available for retrograde access to the upper urinary tract, based on the premise of a single-use flexible endoscope, which eliminates the need for sterilization between cases. Basically, the disposable flexible ureteroscope comprises a reusable 10 000-pixel fiberoptic attached to a hand-held with a deflection lever, detachable light source, and irrigation source. For every new case a sterile 8F sheath is snuggly advanced over the fiberoptic shaft, keeping the later from touching the patient. This sterile sheath contains a 3F working channel and is capable of being deflected along with the fiber optic. Investigators are developing iron-oxide microparticles that bind to the calcium component of stones and provide the opportunity for expeditious extraction with a magnet-tip retrieval device [59]. The addition of isoproteronol (a ß1,3adrenoreceptor stimulant) to the irrigating solution during ureteroscopy relaxes the ureteral smooth muscle, leading to lower intrarenal pressures, which and may facilitate the passage of fragments, debris, or clot [60]. These are a few futuristic concepts that may lead to better outcomes for the patient and facilitate the procedure for the endourologist. Driven by innovation, endourology will remain a dynamic field, with evolving improvements towards the best clinical practice.

Ureteroscopy As with other endourologicl procedures prostate cancer treatment options rogaine 2 60 ml buy low price, the routine use of antimicrobial prophylaxis for ureteroscopy in patients with a sterile preoperative urine culture is controversial prostate cancer typically purchase 60 ml rogaine 2 with amex. Blood and stone C&S were positive in 25% of cases and pelvic urine C&S was positive in 66 androgen hormone male purchase rogaine 2 60 ml overnight delivery. Because of the potential for infection or the presence of infection stones man health tonic discount rogaine 2 60 ml mastercard, antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated when ureteroscopy is performed for treatment of urinary tract calculi prostate cancer active surveillance rogaine 2 60 ml purchase with mastercard. Few randomized and prospective trials have explored the role of antibiotic prophylaxis in ureterolithotripsy. Indications for antibiotics are less clear for diagnostic ureteroscopy or treatment of tumors. Modifiable intraoperative factors may influence infectious complications (Table 4. During ureteroscopy, the hydrostatic pressure generated by the irrigation fluid results in bacterial and endotoxin translocation in to the systemic circulation; therefore, a low-pressure irrigation system can reduce the incidence of systemic infection. In addition, continuous or intermittent bladder drainage with a small-caliber bladder catheter will help maintain low intrarenal pressures during ureteroscopy [36]. Percutaneous renal surgery Percutaneous renal surgery has a low reported incidence of urinary sepsis (0. Unfortunately, this is not always possible to adhere to because of stone or urinary tract colonization; in these patients, appropriate antibiotic therapy 46 Section 1 Basic Principles beyond 24 h from the conclusion of the procedure. In the absence of pre-existing bacterial colonization, there is no evidence that prophylaxis should extend beyond 24 h. We also recommend the use of forced diuresis (furosemide 20 mg at the beginning of irrigation and every 60 min of surgery and irrigation time) to reduce further the pyelorenal reflux that potentially causes fluid overload and bacteremia. Others factors that have been related to postoperative fever and risk of bacteremia are long operative time, large stone burden, and large amounts of irrigating fluid. Interaction of bacteria with different intracorporeal lithotripters may have antibacterial effects. In vitro studies have shown a decrease of bacteria viability after use of intracorporeal lithotripsy and laser [42]. Our group has reported recently that extracorporeal shock-wave or intracorporeal lithotripsy, using all the alternatives currently available, are significantly effective at reducing the viability of bacteria located inside artificial stone models, including struvite stone models infected with Proteus mirabilis [43­45]. Whether this bactericidal effect is desirable is still to be answered, because reduction in the number of bacteria may represent an increase in the presence of proteins/ endotoxins liberated from bacterial cell lysis, therefore increasing the risk of urosepsis. Stop procedure if purulent fluid is obtained at puncture, leave a nephrostomy tube, and stage treatment** 6. Maintain low intrarenal pressure during procedure: · Use only enough irrigation to maintain adequate visibility · Use a wide renal access sheath, ideally 4 F wider than nephroscope 7. Limit quantity of irrigation fluid and operative time *In chronic or asymptomatic bacteriuria administer at least 7 days of culture-sensitive antibiotics before surgery. Results of urine cultures from patients with stones are not predictive of stone bacteriology, especially in those with struvite stones. Therefore, this group should receive broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy that is specific to the cultured bacteria but also likely to be effective against urease-producing organisms residing in the stone. Infected bladder urine did not always carry identical bacteria to those found in the upper tract. Patients with pelvic- or stone-positive cultures showed a relative risk for urosepsis at least four times greater than the rest of the cohort. Also, they found that preoperative hydronephrosis and stones larger than 20 mm correlated with positive stone and pelvic urine cultures. Small case series have been reported that explore the possibility of continuing the surgery even if purulent urine is encountered incidentally. They reported no intraoperative or postoperative complications, other than transient fever in 10. In spite of these recent reports, there is neither sufficient evidence nor well designed clinical trials to recommend other conduct than performing a staged procedure with drainage and broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy until infection has resolved. Clean­contaminated surgery the urinary tract is entered under controlled conditions and there are no infected tissues or bacteriuria. Regarding the optimal duration of perioperative prophylaxis, one randomized and controlled trial confirmed that 1 day of intravenous secondgeneration cephalosporin was as effective as 4 days of the same agent in the prevention of postoperative infections after radical prostatectomy [54]. In contaminated and dirty operations, antimicrobial agents are given with a therapeutic intention. Patients with an indwelling catheter, nephrostomy tube, or other stent device should be considered as having bacteriuria and must be treated in advance (between 3 and 7 days prior to the operation) in order to favor sterile urine at the time of surgery. The patient should be covered well beyond the intervention (7­10 days or longer), depending on the type of operation and patient factors [57]. Since infectious complications are potentially serious when they involve prosthetic material, antibiotic coverage is advocated irrespective of surgical category [50]. Open and laparoscopic urologic surgery Surgical wound classification in to the categories clean, clean­contaminated, contaminated, and dirty seems as relevant to urologic surgery as it is for general surgery [50]. Clean surgery this category involves surgery performed in uninfected tissues without opening of the urinary tract and with primary closure of the wound. Low-dose antibiotics for patients with temporary double-J stents are not recommended and have been shown to increase the risk of acquiring bacterial resistance [62, 63]. Recent advances in stent design have lead to the development of some drugeluting catheters with the aim of reducing the biofilm and thus the stent colonization. Use of antibiotics in patients with indwelling catheters, stents, and drainage tubes the most important risk factor in the development of catheter-associated bacteriuria is the duration of catheterization. Most episodes of short-term catheterassociated bacteriuria are asymptomatic and are caused by a single organism. Multiple organisms tend to be acquired in patients catheterized for more than 30 days. The clinician should be aware of two priorities: the catheter system should remain closed and the length of catheterization should be minimal. While the catheter is in place, systemic antimicrobial treatment of asymptomatic catheter-associated bacteriuria is not recommended, except for some special cases. Routine urine culture in an asymptomatic catheterized patient is also not recommended because treatment is in general not necessary. A minority of patients can be managed with the nonreturn (flip) valve catheter, which avoids the need for a closed drainage bag. Such patients may exchange the convenience of on-demand drainage for an increased risk of infection. Alternatives to indwelling urethral catheters that are less prone to cause symptomatic infection should always be considered. In selected patients, suprapubic catheters, condom drainage systems, and intermittent catheterization are preferable to indwelling urethral catheters [5]. Intermittent catheterization is recommended whenever the patient is able to self-practice this alternative. Prophylactic antimicrobials have not been demonstrated to be beneficial in patients undergoing clean intermittent catheterization [57]. The rate of bacteriuria even in short-term catheterized patients is 5­10% for each day that the catheter is in place [58]. When continuous urinary drainage is required after surgery, perioperative antibacterial prophylaxis is not recommended unless a complicated infection requiring treatment is suspected. Asymptomatic bacteriuria (bacterial colonization) is only to be treated prior to surgery or after removal of the drainage tube. Treatment of a patient at the time of removal of an external urinary catheter should be based on culture-directed antimicrobials. An analysis in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews concluded that there is limited evidence that antimicrobials during the first 3 postoperative days, or from postoperative day 2 until catheter removal, reduces the rate of bacteriuria and other signs of infection in surgical patients [59]. Postoperative sepsis: early identification and initial treatment Early recognition and management of sepsis optimizes outcome. Therefore, patients in whom this problem is suspected after genitourinary surgery should be prioritized and receive timely care. To diagnose sepsis and severe sepsis/septic shock as early as possible, it is necessary to have clear definitions of infection, organ dysfunction, and global tissue hypoxia, and to recognize the clinical and laboratory findings that are indicative of these conditions. Severe sepsis is defined as the presence of sepsis and one or more organ dysfunctions. Organ dysfunction can be defined as acute lung injury; coagulation abnormalities; thrombocytopenia; altered mental status; renal, liver, or cardiac failure, or hypoperfusion with lactic acidosis. As mentioned above, clinical and laboratory recognition of septic problems is mandatory. During generalized infections with systemic manifestations, its level may rise considerably. In contrast, during severe viral infections or inflammatory reactions of noninfectious origin, procalcitonin levels show no or only a moderate increase. Continuous monitoring of vital signs, pulse oximetry, urine output, and initial laboratory testing to assess the severity of global tissue hypoxia and organ dysfunction, including assessment for lactic acidosis, renal and hepatic dysfunction, acute lung injury, and coagulation abnormalities, should be instituted as soon as possible in patients in whom severe sepsis/septic shock is suspected to facilitate the earliest recognition of this condition. The usual bacteria cultured from urinary sources are aerobic Gram negative bacilli and enterococci. Appropriate cultures (including blood and urine) should be obtained before the adjustment of antibiotics. At this point, it is important to reanalyze urine cultures that were obtained preoperatively or during surgery and, based on their results, redirect antibiotic therapy. If results are not available, empiric broad spectrum antibi- otics should be initiated as soon as possible. It is imperative to modify the antibiotic regimen to a culture directed one when possible. If severe sepsis/septic shock is recognized, besides empiric antibiotic therapy, prompt treatment in the intensive care unit should include repletion of intravascular volume with large amounts of crystalloid intravenous fluids. Pressors are administered as needed to maintain blood pressure, central venous pressures are monitored, and fluids are administered to maintain a pressure of 8­12 cmH2O. Bicarbonate and low-dose steroids may be used and good blood glucose control maintained. Tight blood glucose control by administration of insulin doses up to 50 U/h is associated with a reduction in mortality. Recombinant activated protein C (dotrecogin alpha) is a new drug that has been approved for therapy of severe sepsis. Conclusions Septic complications in genitourinary surgery are a lifethreatening scenario that urologists wish to avoid during their practice. Reduction in surgical antimicrobial prophylaxis expenditure and the rate of surgical site infection by means of a protocol that controls the use of prophylaxis. Workgroup: Antimicrobial prophylaxis for surgery: an advisory statement from the National Surgical Infection Prevention Project. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy 25 years later: Complications and their prevention. Fever after shockwave lithotripsy: risk factors and indications for prophylactic antimicrobial treatment. Incidence and risk factors of bacteriuria after transurethral resection of the prostate. The postoperative bacteriuria score: A new way to predict nosocomial infection after prostate surgery. Antibiotic prophylaxis for transurethral prostatic resection in men with preoperative urine containing less than 100,000 bacteria per ml: a systematic review. Once an infectious complication is suspected, it is imperative to act fast and accurately in a multidisciplinary fashion to avoid the progression of the natural history of sepsis and to provide a better opportunity for recovery. Severe sepsis and septic shock: Review of the literature and emergency department management guidelines. Evidence based prescription of antibiotics in urology: a 5-year review of microbiology. Discarding antimicrobial prophylaxis for transurethral resection of bladder tumor: A feasibility study. Mid stream urine C&S test is a poor predictor of infected urine proximal to the obstructing ureteric stone or infected stones: a prospective clinical study. Stone and pelvic urine culture and sensitivity are better than bladder urine as predictors of urosepsis following percutaneous nephrolithotomy: A prospective clinical study. Does a smaller tract in percutaneous nephrolithotomy contribute to high renal pelvic pressure and postoperative fever Interaction of intracorporeal lithotripters with Proteus mirabilis inoculated inside artificial calcium and struvite stones. Inactivation of bacteria inoculated inside urinary stones-phantoms using intracorporeal lithotripters. Percutanoeus nephrostomy versus ureteral stents for diversión of hydronephrosis caused by stones: A prospective, randomized clinical trial. Perioperative antimicrobial prophylaxis in transperitoneal tumor nephrectomy: does it lower the rate of clinically significant postoperative infections Antimicrobial prophylaxis in radical prostatectomy: 1-day versus 4-day treatments. Single-dose orally administered quinolone appears to be sufficient antibiotic prophylaxis for radical retropubic prostatectomy. Infectious complications in patients with chronic bacteriuria undergoing major urologic surgery. Factors predisposing to urinary tract infections after J ureteral stent insertion. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic test for sepsis in critically ill adults and after surgery or trauma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. While these anticoagulants are necessary, they can pose a difficult and complex problem for both the urologist and patient when elective or nonelective procedures need to be performed. This chapter addresses anticoagulants and the management of patients on anticoagulants for specific urologic disorders and procedures. In order to adequately understand the mechanism of action of the anticoagulants, a brief review of the hemostasis and coagulation cascade is necessary. Hemostasis requires appropriate function of four key components: platelet activation and aggregation, the clotting cascade, termination of clot formation, and fibrinolysis. Normal hemostasis Normal hemostasis requires a physiologic balance between prothrombotic and anticoagulant factors.

The loop of Henle functions as a countercurrent system in which the flows in the individual limbs "interact" with one another control androgen hormone naturally cheap rogaine 2 online visa. The capillaries in the renal cortex (as in most tissues) can be thought of as flow-through capillaries that rapidly equilibrate with the surrounding interstitial fluid mens health hair loss discount 60 ml rogaine 2 amex. For the countercurrent mechanism to work efficiently androgen hormone 2 generic rogaine 2 60 ml with mastercard, two requirements must be met: the fluid must be moving slowly prostate number range order 60 ml rogaine 2 with amex, and the two vertical "limbs" of the "U" must be contiguous prostate cancer journal articles purchase generic rogaine 2 canada. Pharmacology note: Recall that a slow flow rate is required for a countercurrent system to work effectively. This is one mechanism by which loop diuretics function in promoting diuresis-by increasing the tubular flow rate and compromising the ability of the loop of Henle to function as a countercurrent system. The addition of water (or the removal of solute) decreases the osmolality of plasma. Because of this, the excess water is excreted in to the urine; the loss of this excess water returns plasma osmolality to normal. Urea is freely filtered through the glomerulus and only partially reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. This creates a more hypertonic medulla, which enables further concentration of the urine. However, the vasa recta also have a hairpin configuration that prevents these vessels from dissipating the concentrating gradient and the blood flow is slow. These vessels also supply the oxygen and nutrients required by the tubular epithelial cells. A hypotensive insult that leaves the heart, liver, and brain unscathed can cause acute renal failure (injury) because of hypoxic injury to tubular epithelial cells. This leads to one of the most common causes of acute renal failure, acute tubular necrosis. Most potassium is intracellular (140 mEq/L), and only approximately 2% is extracellular ($4. Clinical note: Regulation of the extracellular potassium pool is extremely important, because modest changes in plasma levels can precipitate neuromuscular symptoms and lethal cardiac arrhythmias. Potassium distribution: $98% of potassium is intracellular Acute kidney injury: often results in hyperkalemia B. Activation of b2-adrenergic receptors promotes entry of potassium in to cells; a-receptors impair this movement. In order to maintain mandatory electroneutrality, Kþ shifts to the extracellular location to offset an increase in positive charges caused by intracellular movement of Hþ. For this reason, despite a normal or mildly elevated plasma potassium concentration, in addition to insulin and aggressive hydration, these patients require potassium as long as their kidneys are working and they are producing urine. In fact, following the administration of insulin and glucose and the correction of the acidosis, one has to be very cautious about the development of hypokalemia. Other drugs that affect potassium distribution are insulin and albuterol (a b2-receptor agonist). Because of their ability to shift potassium to the intracellular location, these drugs are used to treat severe hyperkalemia. Overview · Ultimately, control of potassium balance requires the excretion of excess potassium by the kidneys. Because the absorption of Kþ is so complete, most urinary potassium is derived primarily from secreted rather than filtered potassium. In potassium-depleted states, net reabsorption of potassium might occur in the distal nephron. Na+ Na+ 3Na+ 2K+ K+ K+ · this secretory ability is so powerful that if there is high dietary intake of potassium, the amount of urinary potassium actually exceeds the filtered potassium load. This reduces the rate of flow through the renal tubules, limiting the amount of potassium that can be excreted. This is one of several reasons hyperkalemia is a common complication of renal dysfunction. Regulation of renal potassium secretion and reabsorption · Aldosterone and plasma Kþ concentration are the major regulators of Kþ secretion by the kidney. The contribution of the kidney to phosphate homeostasis involves a more complex regulatory system than does its contribution to acid-base, bicarbonate, and potassium homeostasis, all of which involve near-complete absorption from the gut with a matching of daily intake to urinary losses. An increase in parathyroid hormone levels decreases the number of Naþ-Pi cotransporters located in the luminal membrane, thus increasing renal phosphate excretion. Phosphate is transported in to the interstitium for absorption in to the circulation. In the liver, a hydroxyl group is added in the 25 position to yield calcidiol, which then travels through the circulation to the kidney. Changes in plasma calcitriol concentration normalize phosphate balance by regulating the absorption of dietary phosphate and phosphate mobilization from bone: The reverse happens in response to hyperphosphatemia, which is commonly seen in individuals with moderate renal failure: · A reduction in proximal tubular phosphate reabsorption occurs because of reduced production of the Naþ-Pi cotransporter. The typical laboratory findings in this disease are hypercalcemia and hypophosphatemia. Secondary (compensatory) hyperparathyroidism is commonly seen with chronic kidney disease. The hyperparathyroidism tends to normalize calcium levels and increase renal phosphorus excretion. In cirrhosis, a variety of pathophysiologic changes result in elevated portal vein pressures, termed portal hypertension. Because the portal vein has multiple anastomoses with systemic veins, pressures likewise increase in these vessels. Circular folds (plicae circularis), villi, and microvilli significantly increase the surface area of the mucosa. This process, whereby one cell type transforms in to another, is termed metaplasia. Clinical note: Absence of the serosa from much of the esophagus may contribute to the tendency for esophageal cancers to spread locally before they are detected, in part explaining the poor prognosis associated with esophageal cancer. Submucosal (Meissner) plexus · Located between the muscularis mucosa and the muscularis propria · Gives rise to efferent fibers that synapse directly on mucosal epithelial cells, with the primary goal of stimulating secretions required for digestion Enteric nervous system: composed of submucosal and myenteric plexuses and entirely contained within gut wall Submucosal plexus: stimulates secretion, promotes digestion Newborns with this condition are likely to be severely constipated, and imaging studies may reveal a massively dilated colon proximal to the aganglionic segment. Myenteric (Auerbach) plexus · Located between the inner circular and the outer longitudinal muscle layer of the muscularis propria · Primary role is coordination of intestinal motility · Stimulation of the myenteric plexus increases intestinal motility mainly by stimulating peristalsis and also by inhibiting contraction of sphincter muscles throughout the intestinal tract. Vagovagal reflexes, such as receptive relaxation of the stomach in response to swallowing of food, involve afferent fibers from the gut that travel through the vagus nerve to the brainstem and then back to the gut through the vagus nerve. Some of the afferent fibers that travel to the spinal cord synapse, directly or indirectly, on lower-order neurons of the anterolateral system and send pain signals to the brain. Rather than constantly generating action potentials, intestinal smooth muscle cells are subject to undulating oscillations in resting membrane potential. These slow waves have a resting membrane potential that varies between approximately À60 and À30 mV. This rhythmic contraction results in the intermittent propulsion of intestinal contents toward the anus. These patients may suffer from intractable nausea and vomiting because of the failure of the stomach to empty after a meal. In such patients, promotility agents such as metoclopramide can provide substantial symptomatic relief. A more aggressive option is to surgically implant a gastric pacemaker, although this is rarely done. Peristalsis: dependent on functional myenteric plexus · the myenteric plexus is almost entirely responsible for coordination of peristalsis. Digestion · Digestion entails the enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules (fats, carbohydrates, and proteins) in to smaller compounds. Composition and functions of saliva · Salivation plays several important roles in facilitating digestion in addition to its vital role in maintaining oral health (Table 7-2). It is relatively common in elderly people (3% to 5% of those >60 years of age) and is characterized by dry mouth (xerostomia) and dry eyes (keratoconjunctivitis sicca). Low levels of saliva may cause dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) and increased dental caries; a deficiency in tear production may cause corneal ulceration and scarring. Types of salivary glands · There are two types of salivary glands: serous and mixed. Saliva: usually hypotonic relative to plasma when secreted Salivary glands: two types-serous and mixed Not only does it break large food pieces in to smaller pieces, which increases the surface area available for digestion, but it also lubricates food with saliva, which facilitates swallowing. They are all innervated by the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V3). The upper and lower esophageal sphincters are located at the top and bottom of the esophagus, respectively. Clinical note: In achalasia, destruction of the myenteric plexus of the enteric nervous system causes dysregulation of esophageal smooth muscle activity. There may be difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), chest pain from esophageal distension, and frequent bouts of pneumonia from aspiration of esophageal contents. The stomach functions mainly as a "holding area" for food waiting to be digested in the small intestine. It also prepares food for digestion in the small intestine by converting the food in to chyme and then regulating the release of this chyme in to the duodenum. Stomach: holding area for food; converts food to chyme and releases small aliquots to duodenum In the cephalic phase, the sight or even the mere thought of food can stimulate gastric secretions. As the food bolus travels through the lower esophagus, the stomach reflexively begins to relax. The stomach also relaxes in response to distension of the stomach itself, which also allows the stomach to accept and to store larger quantities of food; this process is termed gastric accommodation. Parietal cells (Table 7-3) · Parietal cells secrete hydrogen ions, which creates a low gastric pH. There is also a loss of hydrochloric acid producing a hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis. G cells · G cells secrete the hormone gastrin, which promotes parietal cell activity. Clinical note: In atrophic gastritis, many of the glands containing acid-secreting parietal cells are destroyed, thereby limiting the extent of gastric acidification. Use of proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole will also cause a loss of gastrin feedback inhibition. Both situations can therefore result in hypergastrinemia, a metabolic anomaly that is largely benign. However, for boards, realize that a patient with peptic ulcer disease who is taking a proton pump inhibitor and has hypergastrinemia on testing almost certainly does not have Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. Chief cells · Protein digestion (hydrolysis of proteins to peptides and amino acids) begins in the stomach because of the activity of chief cells (see Table 7-3). Clinical note: Mucosal blood flow is highly dependent on the local production of prostaglandins. Chief cells secrete pepsinogen, which when cleaved to pepsin initiates protein digestion in stomach. Gastric motility and pyloric sphincter tone: regulated by hormones produced in small intestine Clinical note: Gastric emptying may be impaired by medications such as opiates and anticholinergics as well as in conditions such as gastroparesis, often seen with long-standing diabetes. The ensuing hypovolemia may result in dizziness, tachycardia, sweating, flushing, and vasomotor collapse; this is called dumping syndrome. Treatment consists primarily of eating very small meals to limit the hyperosmolar load to the duodenum. Secretin · the entry of acidic chyme in to the small intestine stimulates the release of the hormone secretin from specialized S cells in the duodenum. Other hormones · the hormone gastric inhibitory peptide is released in response to a variety of substances, particularly carbohydrates. Pancreas: retroperitoneal organ with important endocrine and exocrine functions Accessory pancreatic duct Minor duodenal papilla Major duodenal papilla Common bile duct Main pancreatic duct Hepatopancreatic ampulla Newborns with annular pancreas may present with projectile vomiting in the first few days of life. The exocrine secretions of the pancreas that ultimately drain in to the small bowel are derived from two distinct cells, ductal cells and acinar cells. With loss of pancreatic exocrine function, as may occur in pancreatitis or pancreatic insufficiency, fewer digestive enzymes are secreted, which impairs nutrient digestion and absorption. Other well established but less common causes include significant hereditary pancreatitis, marked hypercalcemia and hypertriglyceridemia, abdominal trauma, and various drugs such as azathioprine. Pathology note: In the genetic disease cystic fibrosis, thick secretions in to the pancreatic duct may obstruct the duct and cause pancreatic insufficiency. The bile within the gallbladder serves several functions: · Digestion and absorption of dietary fats through formation of lipid micelles, which enable fatty acid absorption across the intestinal mucosa (Table 7-5) · Removal of waste products such as bilirubin and excess cholesterol · Solubilization of cholesterol to prevent precipitation and stone formation Often, the symptoms of biliary dyskinesia and biliary obstruction by gallstones. The term enterohepatic circulation describes the cycling of substances between the liver and intestinal tract; it does not refer to a distinct anatomic circulation. The small percentage of bile acids that are not reabsorbed in the distal ileum are eliminated in the feces. Clinical note: Bile-sequestering agents, such as cholestyramine, act by preventing reabsorption of bile in the distal ileum, thereby depleting hepatic stores of bile acids. The small intestine extends from the pylorus to the ileocecal valve and is composed of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and proximal jejunum, although important fat-soluble vitamins, bile acids, and vitamin B12 are absorbed in the distal ileum. Carbohydrates (Table 7-6) · Complex carbohydrates are long-chain polymers of simple sugars such as glucose. In most people, with the possible exception of vegetarians, intake of fats (lipids) is in the form of triglycerides. In the presence of bile and the phospholipid lecithin, mechanical mixing in the stomach and small intestine converts large lipid droplets to much smaller lipid globules by the process of emulsification. This process markedly increases the surface area for water-soluble digestive enzymes such as pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase (and colipase) then hydrolyzes triglycerides in to free fatty acids and monoglycerides. This is a critical step in fat digestion, because the free fatty acids and monoglycerides would otherwise rapidly recombine to form triglycerides, which are unable to diffuse across the intestinal mucosa.

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References

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