Tyr Ohling Wilbanks, MD, FACS

• Assistant Clinical Professor of Surgery
• Columbia University College of Physicians
• and Surgeons
• Associate Chief of Surgery
• Lincoln Medical and Mental Health Center
• Bronx, New York

Methimazole was associated with an increased incidence of septal heart defects (P = 0 ayurvedic treatment for shingles pain order maxalt with amex. Methimazole is excreted in human breast milk who pain treatment guidelines order maxalt online, achieving a relative infant dose of 2 back pain treatment for dogs buy discount maxalt 10 mg. The resulting quantities are small (2%­3%) and neonatal thyroid function unaltered treatment guidelines for back pain cheap maxalt 10 mg on-line. Several studies observed no deleterious effects on neonatal thyroid function or on physical and intellectual development of breastfed infants whose mothers were treated with up to 20 mg daily heel pain treatment yahoo order maxalt mastercard. The activity of anticoagulants may be potentiated by anti­vitamin K activity secondary to methimazole. Hyperthyroidism may cause increased clearance of -blockers with a high extraction ratio. A dose reduction of -adrenergic blockers may be necessary when a hyperthyroid patient becomes euthyroid. Serum digoxin levels may rise when hyperthyroid patients on a stable digoxin regimen become euthyroid, necessitating a reduction in the dosage of digoxin. Theophylline clearance may decrease when hyperthyroid patients on a stable theophylline regimen become euthyroid; a reduced dose of theophylline may be needed. Breastfeeding Safety M Drug Interactions References Summary 526 Methocarbamol Skedesin; Traumacut; Tresortil) International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Bolaxin; Carbacot; Forbaxin; Methocarb; Miolaxin; Robaxin; Log on to ExpertConsult. Muscle relaxants Muscle spasm Unknown (centrally acting muscle relaxant) Muscle spasm-1­1. Methocarbamol has no direct effect on the contractile mechanism of striated muscle, the motor end plate, or the nerve fiber. Side effects include seizures, anaphylaxis, light-headedness, dizziness, urticaria, N/V, rash, conjunctivitis, blurred vision, headache, fever, bradycardia, hypotension, and thrombophlebitis. The manufacturer indicates minimal amounts are found in the milk, though no details are provided. May inhibit the effect of pyridostigmine and should be used with caution in patients with myasthenia gravis receiving anticholinesterase agents. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Methocarbamol should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety M Drug Interactions References Summary Methohexital International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Brevital) Log on to ExpertConsult. Compared with thiamylal and thiopental, methohexital is at least twice as potent on a weight basis and lasts only half as long. Cumulative effects are fewer and recovery is more rapid than with thiobarbiturates. When used for cesarean delivery, analgesic requirements during the first postoperative hour are increased compared with propofol. It appears similar to propofol when used for first-trimester suction abortion in terms of efficacy, acceptability, cost, and side effects when used as the single anesthetic agent for inducing general anesthesia. Methohexital is excreted into human breast milk, achieving a relative infant dose of 2. Considering its rapid clearance, it is unlikely a clinically significant amount would enter the breast milk when used for the noted indications. Barbiturates may influence the metabolism of other concomitantly used drugs, such as phenytoin, halothane, anticoagulants, corticosteroids, ethanol, and propylene glycol­containing solutions. Pregnancy Category: B Lactation Category: S (likely) · Methohexital should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References M Summary Methotrexate International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Abitrexate; Emtexate; Folex; Mexate; Rheumatrex; Tremetex) Log on to ExpertConsult. The remarkable clinical improvement he observed began the era of modern cancer chemotherapy. Ectopic pregnancy: Ectopic pregnancy is a major cause of maternal morbidity and mortality. Surgery is preferred after tubal rupture, or with a high potential for rupture, hypotension, and anemia, or a pregnancy >3. Treatment often leads to an increase in mass size and should not be considered a sign of failure. Severe abdominal/ pelvic pain may follow, and the surgeon must determine whether the pain is secondary to medical treatment or failure of the methotrexate and rupture. There are also numerous case series/reports supporting its use in cervical, corneal, interstitial, and uterine incision scar ectopic pregnancies. Oral methotrexate (60 mg/m2) may also be successful, though the body of clinical experience is small. Local injection of methotrexate reduces the frequency of persistent ectopic pregnancy after linear salpingostomy. Resistance to methotrexate is encountered, requiring the use of alternative drug regimens (see melphalan). Prognostic factors useful for treatment decisions divide women into low-, medium-, and high-risk groups. Medium- to high-risk populations require multidrug regimens that frequently include methotrexate. Medical abortion: Methotrexate has been used for medical abortion of an intrauterine pregnancy. However, its parenteral administration, relative contraindication in pregnancy (certainly in the first trimester), and lactation relegate it to use as an alternative drug. Rheumatoid arthritis/psoriasis: Methotrexate is used to treat both arthritis and psoriasis. The remaining pregnancies included 19 miscarriages (23%), 55 live births (66%), and 5 minor malformations (5%). The rates of miscarriage and birth defects are similar to rates observed in healthy populations. There is no association between paternal exposure to methotrexate within 90 d of conception and congenital malformations, stillbirths, or preterm birth. Methotrexate is rapidly taken up by the trophoblast in a fashion that does not compete with folate uptake, and it is then extruded. A methotrexate embryopathy is described that includes growth deficiency, microcephaly, skull hypoplasia, wide fontanels, coronal or lambdoidal craniosynostosis, upswept frontal scalp hair, broad nasal bridge, shallow supraorbital ridges, prominent eyes, low-set ears, maxillary hypoplasia, epicanthal folds, short limbs, talipes, hypodactyly, and syndactyly. This syndrome is seen with exposures 6­8 w after conception and doses of 10 mg/week or greater. Case reports of methotrexate exposure after misdiagnosis of ectopic pregnancy before 8 w have suggested a distinct early exposure syndrome including tetralogy of Fallot and potentially other neural crest cell­related abnormalities. Others report no association between later pregnancy exposure and congenital abnormalities. Although that might suggest there is little risk of an effect on the breastfeeding infant, other studies suggest methotrexate is taken up and stored for long periods in some cells such as neonatal gastrointestinal cells and ovary. Toxicity may be increased by the displacement of methotrexate by certain drugs, such as phenylbutazone, phenytoin, salicylates, and sulfonamides. May decrease the clearance of theophylline; theophylline levels should be monitored closely. Vitamin preparations containing folic acid or its derivatives may decrease the response to methotrexate. Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole has been reported rarely to increase bone marrow suppression probably by an additive antifolate effect. Lewden B, Vial T, Elefant E, et al; French Network of Regional Pharmacovigilance Centers. Methoxamine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Vasoxyl) Log on to ExpertConsult. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of methoxamine in pregnant women. It decreases uterine blood flow in pregnant ewes and monkeys at doses similar to human. The efficacy of the combination was similar to methoxamine alone but had the advantage of increased hemodynamic stability. If used to correct hypotension during labor and delivery, it is important to avoid oxytocic drugs such as ergonovine, ergotamine, methylergonovine, and vasopressin, which may cause severe hypertension. Side effects include uterine hypertonus, fetal bradycardia, hypertension, N/V, headache, anxiety, sweating, piloerection, and urinary urgency. It decreases uterine blood flow and, consequently, causes fetal bradycardia and acidemia when given to pregnant ewes and monkeys at doses similar to human doses. Doppler studies reveal a brief increase in the uterine artery pulsatility index after methoxamine for epidural-related hypotension, whereas ephedrine has no effect. Forty-one pregnancies with firsttrimester exposure and follow-up have been reported. The first-trimester loss rate was 10%, and there was no evidence of any increase in adverse outcomes. Care should be exercised when treating patients who are receiving other agents (either topically or systemically) with known photosensitizing activities, such as anthralin, coal tar or coal tar derivatives, griseofulvin, phenothiazines, nalidixic acid, halogenated salicylanilides (bacteriostatic soaps), sulfonamides, tetracyclines, thiazides, and certain organic staining dyes such as methylene blue, toluidine blue, rose bengal, and methyl orange. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Methoxsalen should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. M Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary 532 Methscopolamine International Brand Names None identified. It can also be used for stomach or intestinal spasms, to reduce salivation, and to treat motion sickness. Methscopolamine is also commonly used as a drying agent in cold and allergy medications (Extendryl, AlleRx, Rescon). Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Methscopolamine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations M Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary Methsuximide International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism - (Celontin) Log on to ExpertConsult. Side effects include N/V, anorexia, diarrhea, weight loss, abdominal pain, constipation, eosinophilia, leukopenia, monocytosis, pancytopenia, irritability, nervousness, headache, blurred vision, photophobia, hiccups, insomnia, drowsiness, ataxia, dizziness, urticaria, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, hyperemia, proteinuria, and periorbital edema. As for most anticonvulsant drugs, using monotherapy and the lowest effective quantity given in divided doses to reduce the peaks can minimize the risks. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Methsuximide should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions M References Summary Methyclothiazide International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Aquatensen; Enduron; Thiazidil; Urimor) Log on to ExpertConsult. Diuretics; Thiazides Hypertension (chronic), edema Inhibits resorption of sodium and chloride Chronic hypertension-2. Thiazides and other diuretics are inappropriate treatment for physiologic edema of pregnancy. Maternal Considerations 534 Fetal Considerations There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies in human fetuses. This diminution is not sufficient to preclude effectiveness of the pressor agent for therapeutic use. Methylcellulose is frequently used in the gel preparations for local application of prostaglandin or relaxin. Based on molecular size, it is unlikely methylcellulose crosses the human placenta. Animal studies reveal no evidence that methylcellulose adversely affects lactation. Pregnancy Category: B Lactation Category: S · Methylcellulose is a suitable vehicle for suspending pharmacologic materials during pregnancy. Summary Methyldopa - (Aldomet; Alfametildopa; Dimal; Elanpres; Highprepin; Hypermet; Medomet; Methyldopum; Modepres; Prodop; Scandopa) International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Log on to ExpertConsult. The delay can be reduced to <12 h if the patient is loaded either parenterally or orally. Although methyldopa is perhaps the longest used antihypertensive agent during pregnancy, the sad reality is few antihypertensives have been well studied in pregnancy. The outcomes of 261 pregnancies with first-trimester exposure to methyldopa were compared with 526 control pregnancies without chronic hypertension. The rate of major birth defects in treated women was similar to the comparison group (3. There was a tendency toward a higher rate of first-trimester losses in exposed women. The rate of preterm birth was higher and gestation adjusted birth weights lower in the methyldopa group. There was no evidence for an increased risk of birth defects or an increase in growth restriction or small head circumference comparing monotherapies of methyldopa to metoprolol. However, the increased risk of preterm birth in methyldopa-treated pregnancies was confirmed. These results are consistent with a systematic review of 47 primary eligible studies. All antihypertensive agents were associated with an increased risk of low birthweight adjusted for gestation. Two studies reported an increased risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder following labetalol, and another reported an increased risk of sleep disorders following exposure to either methyldopa or clonidine. In women with mild to moderate chronic hypertension, antihypertensive therapy improves the maternal but apparently not the fetal outcome. In such patients, methyldopa prolongs pregnancy by some 10 d compared to placebo, but it does not decrease the prevalence of superimposed preeclampsia. Neither short- nor long-term use M Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations 536 of methyldopa is associated with adverse maternal effects. Rare, sporadic cases of reactive hepatitis are reported in women treated with methyldopa during pregnancy. In chronically hypertensive women, methyldopa increases prolactin, thyrotropin, and T3 in a dosedependent fashion, indicating decreased dopaminergic inhibition of pituitary hormone release. The increase in growth restriction may be secondary to the methyldopa or an increased rate of poor implantation sites. It does not significantly alter fetal cardiac activity or produce any fetal hemodynamic changes as measured by Doppler flow studies.

Therapy should be initiated cautiously with a gradual increase in dose until the optimal response is achieved pain treatment center rochester general hospital generic 10 mg maxalt amex. Treprostinil Drug Class Indications Mechanism - (Remodulin) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult medial knee pain treatment buy generic maxalt 10 mg on line. The published experience with treprostinil during pregnancy is limited to a few case reports neck pain treatment quick fix cheap maxalt 10 mg buy on-line. Side effects include rebound pulmonary hypertension pain treatment in osteoporosis maxalt 10 mg purchase mastercard, infusion site reaction advanced diagnostic pain treatment center new haven buy 10 mg maxalt with visa, headache, diarrhea, nausea, rash, vasodilation, jaw pain, dizziness, edema, pruritus, and hypotension. Treprostinil inhibits platelet aggregation and may increase the risk of bleeding, particularly among patients maintained on anticoagulants. Pregnancy Category: B Lactation Category: S (probably) · Treprostinil should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. When possible, tretinoin should be delayed until a negative result from this test is documented. When a delay is not possible, the patient should be placed on two reliable forms of contraception. Pregnancy testing and contraception counseling should be repeated monthly throughout the period of tretinoin treatment. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of tretinoin in pregnant women. The published experience consists of case reports of acute promyelocytic leukemia. Epidemiologic data are reassuring: 106 pregnant women with first-trimester exposure to topical tretinoin were reported between 1983 and 2003 and prospectively followed. There were no significant differences between groups in the proportion of pregnancies ending in spontaneous abortion or infants with major structural defects. The prevalence of one or more retinoic acid­specific minor malformations did not differ between groups. Unfortunately, fewer than 10 neonates have been born to women treated with oral tretinoin during pregnancy (virtually all after the first trimester) for acute promyelocytic leukemia. The offspring of diabetic mice are more prone to develop caudal regression after tretinoin exposure. The teratogenic effect of topically applied drug is less clear and is likely low if used as directed. To date there are no data to indicate whether use with these medications increases or decreases either efficacy or toxicity. Pregnancy Category: D (oral), C (topical) Lactation Category: U · Tretinoin should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation unless maternal risk dictates it and there are no alternatives. Summary Triamcinolone - (Acetocot; Amcort; Aricin; Aristcort; Aristocort; Aristocort Forte; Aristocort Suspension; Aristocort Topical; Aristogel; Aristo-Pak; Aristospan Intralesional; Aristospan Parenteral; Articulose-L. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of triamcinolone in pregnant women. Triamcinolone appears to be at least as efficacious for the treatment of asthma during pregnancy as beclomethasone. It is less likely the maternal systemic concentration will reach a clinically relevant level after either topical or inhalational use. However, it does cross the nonhuman primate placenta and is relatively resistant to placental metabolism. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (intranasal use) · Triamcinolone should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary T Triamterene International Brand Names Drug Class Indications - (Dyrenium) Log on to ExpertConsult. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of triamterene in pregnant women. Side effects include hyperkalemia, ventricular arrhythmia, N/V, fatigue, photosensitivity, rash, dizziness, diarrhea, headache, muscle cramps, dry mouth, weakness, and azotemia. Triamterene rapidly crosses the human placenta, reaching F:M levels approaching unity. Diuretic-induced sodium loss may reduce the renal clearance of lithium and increase serum lithium levels with risk of lithium toxicity. May potentiate antihypertensive medication, other diuretics, preanesthetic and anesthetic agents, and skeletal muscle relaxants (nondepolarizing). The following may promote serum potassium accumulation and possibly result in hyperkalemia: blood from blood bank (may contain up to 30 mEq of potassium/L of plasma or up to 65 mEq/L of whole blood when stored for more than 10 d); low-salt milk (may contain up to 60 mEq of potassium/L); potassium-containing medications (such as parenteral penicillin G potassium); and salt substitutes (most contain substantial amounts of potassium). May raise blood glucose levels; dose adjustments of hypoglycemic agents may be necessary for adult-onset diabetes. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Triamterene should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary T Triazolam Drug Class Indications 888 - (Halcion; Somniton; Tialam; Trizam) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult. Benzodiazepines; Hypnotics; Sedatives Insomnia, short-term Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Benzodiazepine receptor agonist Insomnia, short term-0. Side effects include dependency, rebound insomnia, behavioral abnormalities, drowsiness, headache, anxiety, lightheadedness, dizziness, confusion, nervousness, ataxia, dry mouth, constipation, diarrhea, tachycardia, chest pain, dermatitis, and blurred vision. Other benzodiazepines do cross the placenta, and in some rodent models, diazepam and chlordiazepoxide are associated with cleft lip and palate. Use with isoniazid increases the maximum plasma concentration by 20%, decreases clearance by 42%, and increases t/2 by 31%. Use with oral contraceptives increases the maximum plasma concentration by 6%, decreases clearance by 32%, and increases t/2 by 16%. Clinical studies of benzodiazepines suggest a possible drug interaction with the following: amiodarone, cyclosporine, diltiazem, ergotamine, fluvoxamine, nicardipine, nifedipine, paroxetine, sertraline, and verapamil. Pregnancy Category: X Lactation Category: U · Triazolam is poorly studied during pregnancy and lactation. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary T Trifluoperazine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism - (Calmazine; Flupazine; Novoflurazine; Stelazine; Suprazine; Tfp) Log on to ExpertConsult. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of trifluoperazine in pregnant women. The published literature consists of scattered, typically uninformative case reports. Side effects include neuroleptic malignant syndrome, dry mouth, constipation, orthostatic hypotension, extrapyramidal effects, dizziness, blurred vision, tardive dyskinesia, photosensitivity, rash, nausea, tachycardia, fatigue, headache, weight gain, agranulocytosis, and jaundice. Trifluoperazine apparently crosses the human placenta, but the kinetics remain to be elucidated. Calmodulin inhibition has the potential to adversely affect multiple developmentally important pathways. Trifluoperazine enters human breast milk but apparently at lower concentrations than haloperidol and chlorpromazine. As for most psychotropic drugs, monotherapy and the lowest effective quantity given in divided doses to minimize the peaks may minimize the risks. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (possibly as monotherapy) · Trifluoperazine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary T Trimethobenzamide International Brand Names None identified. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of trimethobenzamide in pregnant women. Side effects include coma, seizures, diarrhea, disorientation, dizziness, drowsiness, and muscle cramps. One epidemiologic study several decades old suggested an increased prevalence of major malformations. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Trimethobenzamide should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. If left untreated, 20%­30% of patients develop acute pyelonephritis, which increases the risk of preterm labor and low-birth-weight infants. Nitrofurantoin or a -lactam agent is also a first-line agent for the treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria. Women who develop Q fever should be treated for the duration of pregnancy, specifically if infected during the first trimester. Specifically, the Danish nationwide cohort studies of women exposed to trimethoprim during pregnancy noted an association between firsttrimester exposure and increased rates of miscarriage, as well as exposure months before conception and increased risk of heart and limb defects. Mothers with first-trimester trimethoprim-sulfonamide exposures were randomly matched 1:1 to (1) a primary comparison group (mothers exposed to penicillins and/or cephalosporins) and (2) a secondary comparison group (mothers with no dispensing of an antibacterial, antiprotozoal, or antimalarial medication during the same time period). The outcomes were cardiovascular abnormalities, cleft palate/lip, clubfoot, and urinary tract abnormalities. After matching (1:1) to the comparator groups and only including those with complete data on covariates, there were 20,064 (n = 6688 per group). Adverse pregnancy events after preconception exposure may as well represent folate depletion rather than a direct action of trimethoprim. Inhibits the hepatic metabolism of phenytoin, resulting in a 30% decrease in clearance and a 50% increase in the t/2 of phenytoin. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (probably) · Trimethoprim should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk and the first trimester avoided if possible. Established first-line drugs such as amoxicillin, ampicillin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole are associated with a high degree of resistance in E. Nitrofurantoin or a -lactam agent is a first-line agent for the treatment of asymptomatic bacteriuria. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in pregnant women (see the entries for the individual drugs). Although there is no solid evidence of teratogenicity in humans, the possibility it is a weak human teratogen cannot be excluded (see Trimethoprim). In contrast, sulfamethoxazole readily crosses, reaching an F:M ratio, approximating unity even in the first trimester. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole enter human breast milk, but the kinetics remain to be elucidated. According to the manufacturer, the exposure of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim to the breastfeeding infant would be 2% to 5% of the recommended daily dose for infants >2 months of age. Sulfonamides can also displace methotrexate from plasma protein binding sites and compete with the renal transport of methotrexate, thus increasing toxicity. There is marked but reversible nephrotoxicity when used with cyclosporine in renal transplant recipients. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole may increase digoxin blood levels, especially in older adult patients. Occasional reports suggest that patients receiving pyrimethamine as malaria prophylaxis in doses exceeding 25 mg/w may develop megaloblastic anemia. Like other sulfonamide-containing drugs, sulfamethoxazole potentiates the effect of oral hypoglycemics. Pregnancy Category: D Lactation Category: U · Trimethoprim should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk and the first trimester avoided if possible. References Summary Trimetrexate International Brand Names Drug Class - (Neutrexin) Log on to ExpertConsult. Concerns regarding the safety of trimethoprim suggest trimetrexate should be avoided during pregnancy. T Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations 894 Breastfeeding Safety There is no published experience in nursing women. Pregnancy Category: D Lactation Category: U · Trimetrexate should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Drug Interactions References Summary Trimipramine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Surmontil) Log on to ExpertConsult. Rodent studies are generally reassuring, revealing no evidence of teratogenicity, though embryotoxicity was noted at the highest doses. A decreased dose of trimipramine may be required if cimetidine therapy is initiated and an increased dose if cimetidine is discontinued. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Trimipramine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Drug Class Indications Mechanism Musculoskeletal agents; Neuromuscular blockers, nondepolarizing Adjunct to general anesthesia, diagnosis of myasthenia gravis Competitive cholinergic receptor blocker at the motor end plate, interrupting nerve impulse transmission Adjunct to general anesthesia-0. Although there are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of tubocurarine in pregnant women, there is a long clinical experience. Long-acting agents such as tubocurarine or pancuronium have generally been abandoned by anesthesiologists/intensivists in favor of synthetic short- to intermediate-acting agents. Side effects include histamine release characterized by erythema, edema, skin rash, flushing, tachycardia, arterial hypotension, bronchospasm, circulatory collapse, cardiac arrhythmias, bradycardia, and prolonged apnea. T Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations 896 Fetal Considerations There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies in human fetuses. Placental transfer of tubocurarine is greater than atracurium, with an F:M ratio of 0. Tubocurarine is well tolerated by the neonate if used during cesarean delivery, provided the interval between drug and delivery is short (1­10 min). One woman treated for tetanus at 10-12 w with tubocurarine for 10 d delivered a term infant with joint contractures. The duration of action of tubocurarine is directly related to the relative sensitivities of the different muscle groups, which are ranked from most sensitive to least sensitive as extraocular muscles, nuchal muscle, and diaphragm. Rodent studies reveal an increase in deformations consistent with absent fetal muscle tone. However, considering the indication and dosing, one-time tubocurarine use is unlikely to pose a clinically significant risk to the breastfeeding neonate.

Withdrawal symptoms can occur in neonates exposed to barbiturates throughout the third trimester pain medication for dogs metacam maxalt 10 mg with mastercard. Case-control studies disagree on whether there is a relationship between barbiturate use and a higher than expected incidence of birth defects (oral clefting and cardiac malformations) back pain treatment guidelines buy cheap maxalt 10 mg on-line. Otherwise healthy women attempting suicide with barbiturates did not experience an increase in adverse pregnancy outcomes natural treatment for post shingles pain discount maxalt 10 mg on line. Antenatal phenobarbital exposure does not affect the neurodevelopmental outcome of preterm infants at 18­22 mo of age heel pain treatment exercises discount maxalt 10 mg online, but it may magnify the risk when used with valproate best pain medication for uti cheap maxalt online amex. Phenobarbital enters human breast milk, and the magnitude is altered by polypharmacy, especially early in breastfeeding. Breastfeeding is controversial because of the potential for slow elimination by some neonates. Serum monitoring may be advisable if phenobarbital is continued during breastfeeding. Patients stabilized on anticoagulant therapy may require adjustment if barbiturates are added or withdrawn. Barbiturates appear to enhance the metabolism of exogenous corticosteroids through the induction of liver microsomal enzymes. Patients stabilized on corticosteroid therapy may require a dose adjustment if barbiturates are added or withdrawn. May interfere with the absorption of orally administered griseofulvin, thus decreasing its blood level. The effect of the decreased blood level on therapeutic response has not been established. Shortens the t/2 of doxycycline for as long as 2 w after the barbiturate therapy has ended, probably through the induction of liver microsomal enzymes that metabolize the antibiotic. The effect of barbiturates on phenytoin metabolism is variable; phenytoin and barbiturate blood levels should be monitored frequently. Valproate and valproic acid appear to decrease barbiturate metabolism; thus barbiturate levels should be monitored and the dose adjusted as indicated. Phenobarbital increases the hepatic metabolism of vitamin D to inactive compounds and reduces calcium absorption. Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions P References Summary 683 Phenoxybenzamine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Dibenzyline) Log on to ExpertConsult. Though there are numerous case reports confirming its efficacy for pheochromocytoma during pregnancy, it does not reverse the acute decrease in maternal cardiac output associated with a hypertensive episode. Phenoxybenzamine crosses the human placenta and is concentrated in the fetal plasma, achieving an F:M ratio of 3:1. Blocks the hyperthermia associated with levarterenol and the hypothermia associated with reserpine. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Phenoxybenzamine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions P References Summary Phensuximide International Brand Names None identified. Consideration may be given to stopping phensuximide if the severity and frequency of seizures are such they do not pose a serious threat to the patient. It is difficult to separate the impact of phensuximide from other agents used concurrently and the potential impact of the seizures. Pregnancy Category: D Lactation Category: U · Phensuximide should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary P Phentermine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Adipex-P; Dapex-37. It is indicated only for short-term monotherapy, and the associated weight loss is typically modest. Serious regurgitant disease of the aortic, mitral, and tricuspid valves occurs in patients taking a combination of phentermine and fenfluramine. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of phentermine in pregnant women, and there is probably no indication for its use during either pregnancy or lactation. In one case-control study, the rate of gestational diabetes was significantly greater in the women who took phentermine and fenfluramine during the first trimester. Mephentermine appears as effective as ephedrine for the treatment of hypotension associated with subarachnoid block. Side effects include hypertension, insomnia, palpitations, dry mouth, headache, dizziness, excitation, constipation, diarrhea, and urticaria. There was no significant increase in pregnancy wastage or major malformations in almost 100 women who took phentermine and fenfluramine during pregnancy. A decrease in serotonergic axons in the hippocampus and mitral valve thickening was observed postnatally in pups of rats exposed to the combination antenatally. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · There are no indications for phentermine during pregnancy and lactation. Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary P Phentolamine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Regitine) Log on to ExpertConsult. There are a number of case reports documenting efficacy for the noted indications. Rodent studies suggest phentolamine reduces uterine contractility postpartum, but there is no clinical evidence of such activity in women. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: U · Phentolamine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Phenylephrine should be considered a second-line agent behind first- and second-generation antihistamines. It is popular for the prevention of hypotension following neuraxial anesthesia during cesarean delivery especially when ephedrine might be contraindicated. There was no difference in the rostral spread of spinal hyperbaric bupivacaine with prophylactic phenylephrine than with ephedrine. However, there may be an unexplained increased incidence of fetal acidosis with ephedrine. Further, there is evidence that longer spinal-delivery intervals increased the risk of fetal acidosis developing with ephedrine, but not phenylephrine. Data from the Slone Epidemiology Center Birth Defects Study support the previously reported association of phenylephrine and endocardial cushion defect. Pseudoephedrine is associated with intestinal atresias, but the same has yet to be reported for phenylephrine. The combination of pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, and phenylpropanolamine (Triaminic) may be associated with distal limb reduction. However, considering the frequency of use, dose, and route, it seems unlikely the breastfed neonate would ingest a clinically relevant amount. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (likely) · Phenylephrine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References P Summary Phenylpropanolamine International Brand Names None identified. Ventricular arrhythmia during pregnancy and intracranial hemorrhage postpartum are reported. The agency estimated that it caused 200­500 strokes annually among 18- to 49-y-old users. Data from the Slone Epidemiology Center Birth Defects Study support previously reported associations for phenylpropanolamine and ear defects and with pyloric stenosis. Phenylpropanolamine is not associated with intestinal atresias as pseudoephedrine is reportedly. The combination of pseudoephedrine, phenylephrine, and phenylpropanolamine (Triaminic) is associated with distal limb reduction. Other epidemiologic evidence suggests a relationship between first-trimester use and gastroschisis. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions P References Summary 689 Phenytoin - (Aladdin; Aleviatin; Dantoin; Decatona; Dilantin; Ditoin; Ditomed; Epilantin-E; Eptoin; Hidantoina; Hydantol; Neosidantoina; Phenilep; Zentropil) International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Log on to ExpertConsult. Stable phenytoin serum levels are achieved in most, though there is wide variability with equivalent doses. Patients with unusually low levels may be either noncompliant or hypermetabolizers. Unusually high levels can result from hepatic disease, congenital enzyme deficiency, or other drugs that interfere with metabolism. Clearance is increased during pregnancy, with concentrations declining to half of prepregnancy if the dose is not adjusted. Dose adjustments should be based on clinical symptoms and not solely serum drug concentrations. Phenytoin is highly protein bound, and unbound drug levels are less affected than total concentrations. Phenytoin may impair the effect of corticosteroids, coumadin, digitoxin, doxycycline, estrogens, furosemide, oral contraceptives, quinidine, rifampin, theophylline, and vitamin D. Drug interactions between enzyme-inducing anticonvulsants such as phenytoin and contraceptives are well documented. Either a higher dose oral contraceptive or a second contraceptive method is recommended. Planned pregnancy and counseling before conception are crucial and should include information on the risk of teratogenicity, need for folate supplementation, and the importance of prenatal care. Phenytoin is specifically associated with congenital heart defects and cleft palate. There is evidence that a phenytoin-induced embryonic arrhythmia is one mechanism of teratogenicity. Carbamazepine and topiramate alone do not induce neuronal death, but both exacerbate phenytoin-induced cell death. In contrast, co-treatment with levetiracetam and carbamazepine does not enhance cell death in the developing brain. Thus it may be possible to avoid proapoptotic effects, even with polytherapy, by choosing appropriate drugs. Prior reports of an increased risk of neonatal intracranial hemorrhage after in utero phenytoin exposure due to vitamin K deficiency have not been substantiated. As with most psychotropic drugs, the risks may be reduced by monotherapy and the smallest effective quantity given in divided doses to minimize the serum peaks. Maternal Considerations P Fetal Considerations 690 Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies in nursing women. The phenytoin does enter human breast milk and has a relative infant dose ranging from 0. Serum level measurements are especially helpful when possible drug interactions are suspected. Drugs that may increase serum levels include amiodarone, chloramphenicol, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, dicumarol, disulfiram, estrogens, ethanol, H2 antagonists, halothane, isoniazide, methylphenidate, phenothiazines, phenylbutazone, salicylates, succinimides, sulfonamides, tolbutamide, and trazodone. Drugs that may decrease serum levels include carbamazepine, chronic ethanol abuse, reserpine, and sucralfate. The Moban brand of molindone contains calcium that interferes with the absorption of phenytoin. Ingestion times of phenytoin and antacid preparations containing calcium should be staggered in patients with low serum phenytoin levels. Drugs that may either increase or decrease serum levels include phenobarbital, valproate, and valproic acid. Similarly, the effect of phenytoin on phenobarbital, valproate, and valproic acid levels is unpredictable. Impairs the efficacy of corticosteroids, coumarin anticoagulants, digitoxin, doxycycline, estrogens, furosemide, oral contraceptives, quinidine, rifampin, theophylline, and vitamin D. Pregnancy Category: D Lactation Category: S · Phenytoin should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Side effects include irritation, blurred vision, ocular pain, tearing, redness, and headache. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of physostigmine in human fetuses. Considering the indications, dose, and route, it is unlikely the maternal systemic concentration will reach a clinically relevant level unless the woman is being treated for anticholinergic syndrome. However, considering the indication and dosing, physostigmine use is unlikely to pose a clinically significant risk to the breastfeeding neonate. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (likely) · Physostigmine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary P Phytonadione International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Aqua-Mephyton; Konakion; Mephyton; Vitamin K1) Log on to ExpertConsult. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of phytonadione in pregnant women. Side effects include anticoagulant resistance, hypotension, taste changes, flushing, diaphoresis, dyspnea, edema, and injection site hematoma or pain. Although phytonadione crosses the human placenta, it varies with the compound and is limited, seeming to preclude a significant fetal effect. Phytonadione is concentrated in human breast milk and may be useful as a supplement for the preterm, breastfeeding neonate. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S · Phytonadione should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Side effects include pulmonary edema, visual impairment, impaired fertility, bradycardia, tachycardia, hypotension, hypertension, cholecystitis, biliary spasm, shock, sweating, chills, N/V, flushing, rhinitis, dizziness, weakness, diarrhea, headache, dyspepsia, edema, tremor, dysphagia, and voice changes. Use cautously in patients taking -adrenergic antagonists because of the possibility of conduction disturbances. Drugs with parasympathomimetic effects administered concurrently would be expected to result in additive effects. These effects should be considered when anticholinergic properties contribute to the therapeutic effect of concomitant medication. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S · Pilocarpine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary Pimecrolimus, topical International Brand Names - (Elidel) Log on to ExpertConsult.

Concurrent treatment with doxorubicin has been reported to exacerbate cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis pain treatment arthritis order maxalt with a mastercard. Pregnancy Category: D Lactation Category: S (likely) · Doxorubicin should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk treatment pain during intercourse buy cheap maxalt 10 mg online. Drug Interactions D References Summary 249 Doxycycline Vibramycin; Vibra-Tabs) International Brand Names Drug Class - (Doxy; Doxy-100; Doxychel; Doxycycline Hyclate; Monodox; Log on to ExpertConsult pain management for dogs after neutering maxalt 10 mg order visa. Side effects include neutropenia pain medication for dogs after tooth extraction order maxalt master card, thrombocytopenia the pain treatment center of the bluegrass purchase maxalt with paypal, hepatotoxicity, pseudomembranous colitis, anorexia, epigastric distress, N/V, diarrhea, stomatitis, glossitis, black hairy tongue, dysphagia, hoarseness, renal toxicity, dizziness, headache, and teeth discoloration (see Tetracycline). Use of tetracyclines during tooth development (third trimester, infancy, and in children <8 y) may cause permanent discoloration of the teeth (see Tetracycline). Patients on anticoagulant therapy may require downward adjustment of their anticoagulant dose, as other tetracyclines can depress plasma prothrombin activity. It is advisable to avoid tetracyclines in conjunction with penicillin, as bacteriostatic drugs may interfere with the bactericidal action of penicillin. Absorption of tetracyclines is impaired by antacids containing aluminum, calcium, or magnesium, and iron-containing preparations. The concurrent use of tetracycline and methoxyflurane is reported to cause fatal renal toxicity. Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary 250 Dronabinol Drug Class Indications Mechanism - (Marinol) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult. Several publications suggest a relationship between cannabis use and head and neck cancers in a dose-response manner for frequency and duration of use. Side effects include anxiety, euphoria, dizziness, dry mouth, mood disturbances, ataxia, paranoia, orthostatic hypotension, tachycardia, hallucinations, palpitations, facial flush, and conjunctivitis. Cannabinoids may interact with other medications through both metabolic and pharmacodynamic mechanisms. Dronabinol is highly protein bound and therefore might displace other protein-bound drugs. Practitioners should monitor patients for a change in dose requirements when administering dronabinol to patients receiving other, highly protein-bound drugs. Amphetamines, cocaine, and other sympathomimetic agents may produce an additive hypertension, tachycardia, and possibly cardiotoxicity. Atropine, scopolamine, antihistamines, and other anticholinergic agents may result in additive or super-additive tachycardia, and drowsiness. Concomitant administration of disulfiram, fluoxetine, and theophylline with dronabinol warrants caution. Pregnancy Category: B Lactation Category: U · Dronabinol should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. D Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary 251 Droperidol Drug Class - (Inapsine) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult. Anesthetics, adjunct; Antivertigo; Anxiolytics; Sedatives Perioperative N/V Unknown; antagonizes dopamine and -adrenergic receptors N/V (perioperative)-0. It has been used in emergency rooms for the acute management of migraine headache with success similar to that for meperidine. Droperidol, propofol, and alizapride, in decreasing order of effectiveness for the doses used in this study, reduced the incidence of pruritus induced by the use of intrathecal morphine. In addition, droperidol reduces N/V after epidural morphine similar in efficacy to dexamethasone. However, considering the indications, its short-term use is unlikely to pose a significant risk to the breastfeeding neonate. These include diuretics, laxatives, and supraphysiologic use of steroid hormones with mineralocorticoid potential. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (likely) · Droperidol should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. D Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary 252 Econazole nitrate International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Spectazole) Log on to ExpertConsult. Antifungals; Dermatologics Tinea and cutaneous candidiasis An imidazole derivative that changes fungal cell wall permeability Tinea-apply cream to affected area qd Cutaneous candidiasis-apply cream to affected area bid · Contraindications-hypersensitivity · Caution-unknown Econazole is less effective than clotrimazole for the treatment of Candida vaginitis. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of econazole in pregnant women. One epidemiologic study of women using vaginally administered econazole is reassuring. Considering the indication, dosing, and route, it seems unlikely to pose a clinically significant risk to the breastfeeding neonate. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (likely) · There are other antifungal agents with higher clinical efficacy and more experience during pregnancy. E Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary Edrophonium International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism - (Enlon; Reversol; Tensilon) Log on to ExpertConsult. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of edrophonium in pregnant women. Side effects include severe cholinergic reaction, arrhythmias, respiratory paralysis, diplopia, tearing, seizures, dysphagia, dysarthria, dysphonia, hypotension, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. It is unknown whether edrophonium crosses the human placenta; the chemical structure suggests it will not. Considering the indication and rapid breakdown, one-time edrophonium use is unlikely to pose a clinically significant risk to the breastfeeding neonate. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (probably) · Edrophonium should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. E Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary Efavirenz Drug Class Indications Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers - (Sustiva) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult. It is often prescribed in combination with tenofovir and emtricitabine; it is the first choice in many second and third world countries. The majority of these pregnancies are unintended, stressing the importance of contraceptive counseling. Side effects include Stevens-Johnson syndrome, dermatitis, erythema multiforme, rash, drowsiness, insomnia, abnormal dreams, hyperlipidemia, diarrhea, N/V, fever, and hepatic dysfunction. Although these studies led to a reclassification of the drug to category D, postmarketing studies reveal efavirenz is not a significant human teratogen. Co-administration of drugs primarily metabolized by these isozymes may result in altered plasma concentrations of the co-administered drug, necessitating dose adjustments. Astemizole, midazolam, triazolam, cisapride, ergot derivatives, and voriconazole should not be administered with efavirenz. Efavirenz may decrease concentrations of atazanavir, clarithromycin, indinavir, lopinavir, methadone, saquinavir, and sertraline. Saquinavir should not be used as sole protease inhibitor in combination with efavirenz. Floridia M, Tamburrini E, Ravizza M, et al; the Italian Group on Surveillance on Antiretroviral Treatment in Pregnancy. E Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary 255 Eletriptan Drug Class Indications - (Relpax) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult. A pregnancy registry that included 528 women with first-trimester sumatriptan exposure revealed no evidence of teratogenicity. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (probably) · Eletriptan should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. E Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary Enalapril Drug Class Indications Mechanism - (Vasotec) International Brand Names Log on to ExpertConsult. However, enalapril should be discontinued immediately when pregnancy is diagnosed and replaced with another suitable hypotensive agent to prevent or minimize the fetal risks. Side effects include angioedema, hypotension, renal failure, hyperkalemia, hepatotoxicity, neutropenia, pancreatitis, dizziness, N/V, fatigue, dyspepsia, rash, urticaria, and myalgia. Enalapril crosses the human placenta, but it does not equilibrate, even after 6 h, at least in the isolated perfused model. Trace amounts of enalapril are detected in breast milk, and the relative infant dose is <0. Diuretics, especially if recently initiated, may be associated with hypotension after initiation of enalapril. The possibility can be minimized by volume loading, discontinuing the diuretic, or increasing salt intake before enalapril. Maternal Considerations E Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary 257 Enoxaparin International Brand Names Drug Class Indications - (Lovenox) Log on to ExpertConsult. Until additional information is available, it is suggested periodic monitoring continue throughout pregnancy (anti-Xa activity of 0. The mean maximum dose required to achieve a therapeutic anti-Xa level at 5­6 h after injection in one study was 38. The risk of osteoporosis is similar to that with unfractionated heparin, though the risk of thrombocytopenia may be lower. Acute thrombosis should be treated with therapeutic anticoagulation for the remainder of pregnancy and for at least 6 w postpartum (a minimum of 3 mo total). Enoxaparin has been used for prophylaxis during pregnancy in women with thrombophilia or mechanical heart valve or antiphospholipid syndrome. There have been multiple deaths of treated pregnant women with a mechanical heart valve, and the manufacturer specifically discourages its use for this indication. Unlike unfractionated heparin, enoxaparin is not predictably reversed with protamine. Otherwise, patients should be instructed to withhold their next injection once contractions begin or 12 h prior to a planned induction of labor. Enoxaparin should be discontinued 12­24 h (depending on daily dose) before placement of neuraxial (epidural or spinal) anesthesia. Enoxaparin should not be (re)instituted until at least 12 h after removal of an indwelling epidural catheter. Neither unfractionated nor fractionated heparin crosses the human placenta, and thus enoxaparin does not pose a direct risk to the human fetus. E Mechanism Dosage With Qualifiers Maternal Considerations Fetal Considerations 258 Breastfeeding Safety There are no well-controlled studies in nursing women. One investigation found no anti-Xa activity in the breast milk from a single patient, and another in a population of 12 women. Pregnancy Category: B Lactation Category: S (probably) · Enoxaparin is a more costly alternative to unfractionated heparin with likely equal efficacy and a similar risk of osteoporosis complicating long-term therapy. Drug Interactions References E Summary Ephedrine International Brand Names None identified. When abused as a decongestant, ephedrine may exacerbate the hypertension associated with preeclampsia. There is a long clinical experience with the use of ephedrine during labor to treat hypotension associated with neuraxial anesthesia. It is considered the vasopressor of choice unless contraindicated by maternal condition. But although interventions such as colloids, ephedrine, phenylephrine, or lower leg compression reduce the incidence of hypotension, none has been shown to eliminate the need to treat maternal hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean section. The need for ephedrine can also be reduced by arranging the patient in the left lateral position with the head elevated while placing the spinal. Women with preeclampsia are less likely to experience hypotension at the time of spinal anesthesia and require significantly less ephedrine when they do. Side effects include arrhythmias, insomnia, nervousness, dizziness, and tachycardia. Ephedrine apparently crosses the placenta, though the kinetics remain to be elucidated. Ephedrine is excreted and concentrated into breast milk, but <1% of the ingested dose is excreted. However, a single dose of pseudoephedrine reduces 24-h milk production by as much as 25%. E Fetal Considerations Breastfeeding Safety Drug Interactions References Summary Epinephrine International Brand Names Drug Class Indications Mechanism 260 - (Adrenalin Chloride; Ana-Guard; Epifrin; EpiPen; Glaucon; Philip; Racepinephrine; Sus-Phrine) Log on to ExpertConsult. Adrenergic agonists; Bronchodilators; Inotropes; Ophthalmics; Pressors Severe asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac arrest Potent activator of - and -adrenoceptors Dosage With Qualifiers Severe asthma-0. There are no adequate reports or well-controlled studies of epinephrine in pregnant women. Epinephrine in solution with local anesthetic decreases vascular absorption of local anesthetic, intensifying neural blockade and in some cases prolonging the duration of the block. The maternal response may be potentiated by a variety of drugs and by preeclampsia. Side effects include stroke, cerebral hemorrhage, arrhythmias, hypertension, tachycardia, tremor, N/V, and headache. Epinephrine apparently rapidly crosses the human placenta, which is rich in catecholamine receptors. Based on its molecular size, epinephrine is likely excreted into human breast milk. Use with excessive digitalis, mercurial diuretics, or other drugs that sensitize the heart to arrhythmias is not recommended. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S · Epinephrine should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk. Case series suggest hypertension may complicate as many as 20% of cases, perhaps reflecting the fact it is most often prescribed for pregnant women under going chronic renal dialysis. Adjuvant epoetin safely enhances the efficacy of iron sucrose in the treatment of gestational iron deficiency anemia resistant to orally administered iron alone. In the offspring of rats treated with 500 U/kg, a diverse group of abnormalities was observed, including delayed ossification. The molecular weight makes it unlikely that synthetic epoetin enters human breast milk, though erythropoietin is a normal component of breast milk. Pregnancy Category: C Lactation Category: S (probably) · Epoetin should be used during pregnancy and lactation only if the benefit justifies the potential perinatal risk.

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References

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