Thomas T. Tsai,MD

• Cardiology Fellow
• Department of Internal Medicine
• University of Michigan
• Ann Arbor, Michigan

Nerve conduction studies are not warranted with this short history unless there is permanent numbness during the day or wasting of the thenar eminence (this would be unusual with such a short history) heart attack sam tsui chrissy costanza clonidine 0.1 mg purchase on line. She improved for about 6 weeks but returned with a recurrence of her hand symptoms and with painful morning stiffness of her shoulders and a swollen knee hypertension 130100 discount clonidine uk. She was started on methotrexate heart attack pain cheap clonidine 0.1 mg without prescription, the drug of choice in a patient who is not planning to get pregnant blood pressure medication ok for pregnancy safe clonidine 0.1 mg. If pregnancy is planned sulphasalazine is used first as it is less likely to be teratogenic although methotrexate may need to be added ­ in which case the patient will be advised to take contraceptive precautions and to only try for pregnancy when she has ceased taking the methotrexate for at least 3 months fitbit prehypertension 0.1 mg clonidine buy free shipping. Three years later sulphasalazine was added but she developed an allergic skin reaction. She remembered that her father had described similar symptoms and that beyond the age of 30 years he was unable to walk without wearing his boots. On examination, she had bilateral pes cavus and had loss of sensation to light touch and pinprick in her hands and feet. This culminated in a thalamic infarction, followed by a second stroke in the pons. This led to a subarachnoid haemorrhage for which vitamin K and platelets were given. The thrombocytopenia remained refractory and severe after two doses of cyclophosphamide, but eventually returned to near normal after 8 doses of rituximab. She remained stable for 6 months after the last dose of rituximab and subsequently suffered another stroke with hemiparesis. Her recovery was good and she was able to resume work as a volleyball coach with some residual imbalance and slurred speech. Patients usually present by the age of 20 years, but some mutations lead to milder clinical pictures, and hence present later. The neuropathy affects both sensory and motor fibres, and accordingly causes loss of sensation in addition to muscle bulk loss and weakness. In addition to weakness, patients present complaining of musculoskeletal and neuropathic pain, as in this case. There is no evidence based literature to support immune suppression for the anti-phospholipid syndrome, but it is of interest that a recurrent stroke occurred 6 months after rituximab therapy, possibly consistent with the reconstitution of the B cell population. Empiric use of such treatments is increasing, and it can be hoped that further information about the results of such use will become available. Lupus-like features are common in patients with anti-phospholipid syndrome which, like other partial lupus syndromes, could be considered a forme fruste of systemic autoimmunity. There was localized tenderness over the medial epicondyle and this was made worse by flexing the wrist against resistance with the arm straight. Her disease had been uncomplicated over the years, and she had been taking hydroxychloroquine 400 mg daily for fatigue and arthralgia. On examination, she was afebrile, her chest was clear, and cardiac examination was normal. Nodular lesions were noted on her legs (15a) and curious papular lesions on her upper back (15b). The patient should be warned that the pain may increase for a couple of days and that he must rest the arm and avoid gripping and lifting for several weeks after the pain has settled before going gradually back to exercise. It is made worse by extending the wrist with the arm straight and is treated conservatively or by injection. Rarely, it is due to an infection when it will be hot and there may be associated cellulitis. For traumatic and gouty olecranon bursitis it is usually helpful to inject steroid. Inflammatory arthritis produces pain, swelling and restriction of full extension of the elbow. Outcome the patient had one injection of steroid after 3 weeks of conservative management. Outcome Her bronchoalveolar lavage and a biopsy of the lesions on her back revealed findings consistent with sarcoid. She gave a 6-week history of a febrile illness characterized by a pruritic rash on her forearms (16a), joint pains and fatigue. Her fever chart is shown (16b), and it was observed that the rash came and went with the spikes of temperature. She had synovitis affecting the right wrist, a small effusion affecting the left knee and 2-cm smooth, non-tender hepatomegaly. Patients should also have an echocardiogram to exclude bacterial endocarditis or atrial myxoma. Any enlarged lymph nodes should be biopsied, and bone marrow examination considered if there is anything to indicate a haematological malignancy. In some cases, there is a need to introduce a steroid-sparing agent early in the management. To make the diagnosis, a patient needs to fulfil at least five criteria, including three major. He had noticed that he tilted to the right and that he could not bend to put on his socks. He was unable to stand on the toes of his left foot and could not externally rotate the foot against pressure. The ankle jerk was reduced and the straight leg raising test was limited to about 30° by pain in the back and leg. He was numb around the anus and on direct questioning he admitted that he had not been able to control his urine in the last few hours. Three months ago he missed the last rung while descending a ladder and landed awkwardly sustaining a fracture of his right fibula and bruising his back. Routine blood tests revealed normal serum calcium, vitamin D, magnesium, phosphate and full blood count. There was mild tenderness over the left lower paravertebral muscles but his range of movement of the spine was normal. The fact that he has perianal numbness and difficulty controlling urine suggests that this is a large central and left sided disc prolapse causing cauda equina syndrome. It is still best to refer him to a back pain or neurosurgical service urgently in case the usual natural history of a disc prolapse, which is gradual recovery within 6­8 weeks, does not occur. There may be a large sequestrated disc or he may need a nerve root canal block or microdiscectomy if the sciatica persists. A several month period of recovery with back exercise and back care advice meant that he was soon back to normal activity but had persistent numbness of the lateral border of the foot. The original diagnosis was made in primary care 5 years earlier following a screening bone density scan, and she was started on weekly alendronate, 70 mg. There were no radiculopathic symptoms, and full neurological examination was normal. This should include a full medical history and examination to establish whether there are untreated inflammatory diseases. Review of medication may also provide useful information, for instance regarding steroid or antiepileptic medication use. It may also be useful to get a plain x-ray of the thoracic and lumbar spine to look for asymptomatic crush fractures. This is also useful in terms of having baseline imaging which can then be used to assess disease progression. Finally, it is unusual for bone mineral density to fall in a patient taking regular bisphosphonates, and it therefore may be appropriate to address the issue of adherence. Compliance with bisphosphonate treatment should lead to a fall in bone turnover markers such as collagen type 1 telopeptide. In terms of management, in the short term these patients require a significant amount of analgesia, sometimes including opiates. The ankle pains had resolved after 18 hours, but then she noticed pain in the right wrist followed by painful swelling of the left knee. She had been previously fit and well, but 2 weeks prior to the onset of her rash and joint pains, she had complained of a sore throat that seemed to have improved after 2 days of home therapy with aspirin gargles and antiseptic lozenges. By day 3, he noticed pain, swelling and tenderness over the knee caps (21) with mild discomfort on flexing the knees. The patient has arthritis and erythema marginatum which are two of the five revised major Jones criteria needed to make a diagnosis of rheumatic fever. The presence of fever and raised inflammatory markers fulfil two minor criteria, and in addition she has evidence of recent pharyngeal infection with group A streptococci. A rapid streptococcal antigen test can give a quick indication of the presence of infection with group A streptococci. Throat cultures are usually negative at the time of onset of symptoms of rheumatic fever; however, streptococcal antibody levels usually peak at this time. Values of 200­300 Todd units are not uncommonly seen in healthy schoolchildren and carriers of group A streptococci. Aspirin usually causes resolution of arthritis within 24­36 hours but treatment should be continued until inflammatory markers normalize. It has been caused in this case by recurrent minor trauma due to excessive kneeling. If septic bursitis is suspected, then the bursa should be aspirated and fluid samples sent for microbiological analysis. Fluid microscopy may also reveal other causes of the prepatellar bursitis including monosodium urate crystals seen in gout. Twelve years earlier he had had a left total hip replacement following a diagnosis of osteoarthritis. X-rays of his hips revealed mild osteoarthritis on the right, and no problems with the replacement on the left. On further questioning he admitted to abdominal pain, malaise and an unspecified amount of weight loss. Examination revealed pain-free movements of both hips with generalized abdominal tenderness. An ultrasound of his abdomen revealed an infrarenal abdominal aortic aneurysm measuring 4. The patient was referred to rheumatology for advice about definitive diagnosis and management. She had also been troubled by some intermittent swelling of her joints with early morning stiffness lasting over an hour. There was little of relevance in her previous medical history and no family history of note. She had been prescribed some furosemide by her primary care physician which had not made much difference. On examination she had bilateral pitting oedema to mid calf with diffuse alopecia. Her blood pressure was 150/100 mmHg and significant axillary lymphadenopathy was noted. The urea and creatinine were just above the upper limit of normal but her liver function tests were within the normal limits. Urine analysis revealed proteinuria 3+ with red cell casts more than 20 per high power field noted. Over the next 3 months she was treated with oral prednisolone and azathioprine, which initially seemed to be helpful. Her urea and creatinine returned to normal but her hypertension remained difficult to control and she had persistent heavy proteinuria. Questions 1 What percentage of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus suffer from either significant renal disease or from alopecia Ask about temporal headaches and tenderness, jaw claudication and visual disturbance. Transient local or diffuse alopecia has been reported in approximately 20­35% of most series, though scarring alopecia is much less common, being seen in 5% or fewer. Rarely, increasing the systemic immunosuppression may be helpful and occasionally intralesional steroids may be of some value, but very often the preferred option is to use a wig. Her previous treatment had been with a combination of narcotics and low dose methotrexate (7. Review of systems was notable for 2 hours of morning stiffness, active pain, tenderness and swelling in the hands and feet, which made it difficult for her to perform activities of daily living. There may be local tender trigger points in the trapezius muscle, at the upper medial scapula, over the C7 spinous process or at the occipital ridge. Neck movements are often restricted but rarely to the degree that this man demonstrates. At his age significant spondylosis on x-ray is unlikely unless he has played a lot of contact sports such as rugby. The relevance of spondylosis to neck pain is often difficult to define as it persists radiologically even if the pain resolves. In this patient the severity of the pain and the radiation to the interscapular region are highly suggestive of a disc prolapse, albeit without arm symptoms. The patient will need to have his work station reviewed to make sure that the keyboard and screen are at the optimum position. He was referred urgently to a neurosurgeon and underwent an urgent decompression from an anterior approach. She was very anxious about the development of numerous small lumps on her hands (26a, 26b). She has permanent leave to stay and lives with her two teenage children but speaks no English. She complained of a 10-year history of bilateral lower back pain which was constant and limits her activity. Her children did most of the housework and shopping although she struggled to do what she could. She slept badly and appeared depressed but smiled when she reported that her children were doing well at school. She complained of bloating and abdominal pain which had been diagnosed as irritable bowel syndrome.

Thus blood pressure normal teenager buy clonidine 0.1 mg on-line, the study of perception is more closely tied to the study of the brain blood pressure healthy range buy generic clonidine 0.1 mg online, thought arrhythmia high blood pressure clonidine 0.1 mg purchase visa, and memory than is the study of sensation arrhythmia babys heartbeat discount clonidine 0.1 mg overnight delivery. The distinction is fuzzy heart attack hospital stay buy clonidine online, however, because the organizing of stimulus information in ways useful for extracting meaning actually begins during the earliest steps of taking that information in. This chapter begins with a brief overview of basic processes involved in sensation. We then provide a discussion of psychophysics, which is an approach to finding and describing reliable relationships between physical stimuli and sensory experiences of those stimuli. The next chapter deals exclusively with vision, which is by far the most thoroughly studied of the senses. Overview of Sensory Processes 1 How can the process of sensation be described as a chain of three different kinds of events Most broadly, the process of sensation can be diagrammed as follows: physical stimulus S physiological response S sensory experience We have here three classes of events, each of which is entirely different from the others: (1) the physical stimulus is the matter or energy of the physical world that impinges on sense organs; (2) the physiological response is the pattern of chemical and electrical activity that occurs in sense organs, nerves, and the brain as a result of the stimulus; and (3) the sensory experience is the subjective, psychological sensation or perception-the taste, sound, or sight, for instance-experienced by the individual whose sense organs have been stimulated. The sensory experience generally tells us something about the physical stimulus, but it is a very different thing from the physical stimulus. In sipping a cup of coffee, we encounter molecules of caffeine on our tongue, and we experience a bitter taste. The bitterness is not a chemical property of the caffeine molecules; it exists only in our sensory experience triggered by the molecules. Electromagnetic energy of a certain wavelength enters our eyes, and we experience the dark brown color of coffee. The brown color is not a property of the electromagnetic energy but exists only in our sensory experience. Sensory psychologists are interested in identifying lawful relationships among the three just-described classes of events. Each Sensory System Has Distinct Receptors and Neural Pathways Ever since Aristotle, people have spoken of the five senses, identifying them as smell, taste, touch, hearing, and vision. We have a sense of balance, mediated by a mechanism in the inner ear, and a sense of limb position and movement, mediated by receptors in muscles and joints. Each sense has distinct sensory receptors and neural pathways to and within the brain (Hendry & Hsiao, 2012a). Sensory receptors are specialized structures that respond to physical stimuli by producing electrical changes that can initiate neural impulses in sensory neurons. Sensory neurons (described and illustrated in Chapter 5) are specialized neurons that carry information from sensory receptors in to the central nervous system. For some senses, receptors are simply the sensitive ends of sensory neurons; for others, they are separate cells that form synapses upon sensory neurons. For some senses, receptors all exist in a specific, localized sensory organ, such as the ear, eye, or nose; for others, they exist in a wide variety of locations. Pain receptors, for example, exist not just throughout the skin but also in muscles, tendons, joints, and Primary taste area many other places. The stimuli, receptors, and peripheral nerves involved in the most thoroughly studied senses are listed in Table 7. Regardless of whether they come from one location or many, the neurons for any given sense lead to pathways in the central nervous system that are unique to that sense. Although Primary olfactory area brain structures below the cortex can organize unconscious behavioral reactions to sensory stimuli, conscious sensory experiences depend on activity within the cerebral cortex. Every sensation that you experience consciously is a product, ultimately, of some pattern of activity within a sensory area of your cerebral cortex. The primary taste area lies in a portion of the cerebral cortex called the insula, which is buried in the fold between the parietal and temporal lobes. The primary olfactory area lies in a portion of cerebral cortex called the piriform cortex, which wraps underneath the temporal lobe. If we could somehow rewire those connections, sending your optic nerves to your auditory brain areas and your auditory nerves to your visual brain areas, you would hear light and see sound. When you bump the back of your head, you may "see stars," because the bump artificially activates neurons in visual areas of your brain. Sensory Systems Preserve Information About Stimulus Quantity and Quality For senses to be useful, they must preserve-in the patterns of neural activity they produce-relevant information about the physical stimuli to which they are responding. Every form of energy can vary along at least two dimensions-a quantitative dimension and a qualitative one. A sound or light can be weak or strong; molecules stimulating taste or smell can be dilute or highly concentrated. Lights of different wavelengths (which we perceive as different colors) are considered to be qualitatively different, as are sounds of different frequencies (which we perceive as different pitches), as are different chemicals (which we perceive as different smells or tastes). For each of our senses, transduction (the process by which a receptor cell produces an electrical change in response to physical stimulation) occurs in such a way that information about the quantity and quality of the stimulus is preserved in the pattern of action potentials sent to the brain. Coding of stimulus quantity results from the fact that stronger stimuli produce larger receptor potentials, which in turn produce faster rates of action potentials in sensory neurons. The brain interprets a fast rate of action potentials as a strong stimulus and a slow rate as a weak stimulus. In contrast, the coding of stimulus quality occurs because qualitatively different stimuli optimally activate different sets of neurons. Different receptors within any given sensory tissue are tuned to respond best to somewhat different forms of energy. In the eye, for example, three different kinds of receptor cells, each most sensitive to a different range of wavelengths of light, provide the basis for color vision. In the ear, different receptors are most sensitive to different sound frequencies. And in the nose and mouth, different receptors are most sensitive to different kinds of molecules. Thus, in general, qualitative variations are coded as different ratios of activity in sensory neurons coming from different sets of receptors. The same principle applies to other senses, as you will discover later in this chapter. Each neuron responds at a faster rate to a strong solution of a given substance than to a weak one (quantitative coding); but neuron A always responds at a faster rate than neuron B when the stimulus is sugar, and the reverse is true when the stimulus is salt (qualitative coding). This illustrates the general principle that sensory quantity is coded in the overall rate of action potentials in sensory neurons and sensory quality is coded in the ratio of activity across different sets of neurons. Data are hypothetical, but are based on such findings as those of Nowlis & Frank, 1977. When you first wade in to a lake, the water may seem terribly cold, but later only slightly cool. When you first enter a chemistry lab, the odor may seem overwhelming, but later you hardly notice it. The change in sensitivity that occurs when a given set of sensory receptors and neurons is either strongly stimulated or relatively unstimulated for a length of time is called sensory adaptation. In general, our senses are designed to register changes was before; and when the amount of stimulation in the environment, not steady states. If a stimulus remains for a period of time, the receptor potential and rate adaptation How can you demonstrate of action potentials are at first great, but over time they become much reduced, that adaptation can occur in neurons resulting in reduced sensation. In other cases, however, adaptation is mediated at in the brain, not just in receptors Receptors and Pathways Sensory Coding Sensory Adaptation Sensory receptors respond to physical stimuli with electrical changes, a process called transduction. Those electrical changes, called receptor potentials, can trigger action potentials in sensory neurons. Activity in a specific sensory area of the cortex (such as visual) produces a corresponding type of sensory experience (such as sight). Information about physical stimuli is coded in the patterns of neural activity induced by the stimuli. Stronger stimuli produce larger receptor potentials and faster rates of firing in sensory neurons. Qualitatively different stimuli produce different ratios of activity across different sets of receptors and sensory neurons. In general, continuous stimulation reduces the responsiveness of a sensory system and lack of stimulation increases its responsiveness. The result of this is that senses are much more responsive to changing than to unchanging stimulation. Psychophysics Psychophysics is the study of relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli and the sensory experiences produced by those stimuli. This section describes some psychophysical methods and findings related to (a) the detection of weak stimuli, (b) the detection of small changes in stimuli, and (c) the attempt to develop a general law relating the physical intensity of a stimulus to the intensity of the sensory experience it produces. As you will see, psychophysics is more mathematical than most other areas of psychology. Psychophysics is the perfect cup of tea for those psychologists who like a degree of precision in their science, are drawn by the elegance of mathematics, and are fascinated by the idea that certain psychological phenomena can be described meaningfully with algebraic equations. Historically, research in psychophysics by such scientists as Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner, in the nineteenth century, played a vital role in the founding of psychology as a science, and many of the specific questions they raised are still topics of research and debate today. The Absolute Threshold Is a Measure of Sensitivity Psychophysicists refer to the faintest detectable stimulus of any given type as the absolute threshold for that type of stimulus. For example, the weakest intensity of a particular tone (say, middle C on the piano) that you can hear 50 percent of the time is your absolute threshold for that tone. The weakest solution of sodium chloride (table salt) that you can taste is your absolute threshold for sodium chloride. You may well have undergone a test of your absolute threshold for various sound frequencies as a clinical test of your hearing. In general, for most senses, absolute thresholds are higher (meaning that sensitivity is lower) for older adults than for younger adults, and, for some senses, women often have greater sensitivity than men. For example, Pamela Dalton and her colleagues (2002) tested women and men repeatedly to determine their absolute thresholds for certain odorous chemicals. In other words, the women were smelling this substance at concentrations less than one hundred-thousandth of the minimal concentration that the men could smell. Another name for the difference threshold is the just-noticeable differMen, citralva Men, benzaldehyde ence, abbreviated jnd (by convention, small letters are used for this abbreviation). In the early nineteenth century, the German physicist Ernst Weber (1834) conducted a systematic study of just-noticeable difWomen, benzaldehyde ferences. Weber found that the jnd varTest session ied in direct proportion to the original weight. To find the absolute threshold for a given frequency, for a given ear, the sound is presented at decreasing amplitudes until the person cannot detect it, and at increasing amplitudes until the person can detect it. Thus, a typical subject could just barely detect the difference between a 15-gram and a 15. Thus, a typical subject could just barely detect the difference between a 100- and a 101-millimeter line or between a 1,000- and a 1,010-millimeter line. The law holds up rather well over a wide portion of the possible range of intensities or magnitudes for most types of stimuli, but not at the very low (near the absolute threshold) and very high ends of the range. Sensory Magnitude Is Lawfully Related to Stimulus Magnitude When a physical stimulus increases, our sensory experience of it also increases. Is it possible to specify in a mathematical equation the relationship between the magnitude of a stimulus and the magnitude of the sensory experience it produces Such an equation was proposed by the German scientist Gustav Fechner in the middle of the nineteenth century and was tested experimentally and modified by S. The jnd is measured in physical units (such as grams or sound-pressure units), yet it reflects a sensory phenomenon, the just-noticeable difference between two sensations. Therefore, Fechner reasoned, the jnd could serve as a unit for relating physical and sensory magnitudes. As you just learned, the jnd is directly proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus. Thus, Fechner assumed that the amount of physical change needed to create a constant sensory change is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, and he showed mathematically that this can be expressed as a logarithmic relationship. A change in c would change the values of S but would not change the fact that each doubling of M adds a constant increment to S, which is the point that the table is designed to illustrate. Notice too that every time the physical intensity (M) doubles, the sensed brightness (S) increases by a constant amount (0. Stated differently, as the physical scale increases geometrically, the sensory scale increases arithmetically. Consequently, a huge intensity range on the physical scale is condensed to a much smaller and more manageable range on the psychological scale. Imagine what our sensory experiences would be like if our perceptions of brightness or loudness were directly proportional to the physical intensities of lights or sounds. We would hear thunder as a thousand times louder than a normal conversation, and we would hear loud rock bands as a thousand times louder than thunder. The smallest difference in intensity of a given type of stimulus that a person can detect is a difference threshold, or jnd. Smell Smell and taste are called chemical senses, because the stimuli for them are chemical molecules. Think of the effects produced by a valentine gift of chocolates, perfume, or fresh roses; by the aroma and taste of your favorite meal; or by the stench of feces or rotting meat. Although the human sense of smell, or olfaction, is much less sensitive than that of many other animals (for example, humans have about 500 genes involved with olfaction, whereas mice have 1,300; Scott, 2012), it is still remarkably sensitive and useful. We can smell smoke at concentrations well below that needed to trigger even the most sensitive of household smoke detectors. We can distinguish among roughly 10,000 different chemicals by smell (Scott, 2012). Blind people regularly identify individuals by their unique odors, and sighted people can do that too when they try. Anatomy and Physiology of Smell Great progress has been made within the past decade or so in understanding the sense of smell. The stimuli for smell are molecules that evaporate in to the air, are taken with air in to the nasal cavity, and then become dissolved in the mucous fluid covering the olfactory epithelium, the sensory tissue for smell, which lines the top of the nasal 7 How do transduction, qualitative coding, and quantitative coding occur for the sense of smell The sensory neurons send their axons through the cribriform plate (a small bone shelf) to form synapses on second-order olfactory neurons in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb, directly above the nasal cavity. As illustrated in the righthand diagram by the use of color, each glomerulus receives input from only one type of olfactory sensory neuron (defined by its type of receptor sites).

Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning hypertension zinc deficiency clonidine 0.1 mg buy otc. The benefits of androgens combined with hormone replacement therapy regarding to patients with postmenopausal sexual symptoms hypertension prevention and treatment order clonidine. The role of knowledge-based expectations in music perception: Evidence from musical restoration blood pressure medication leg swelling clonidine 0.1 mg buy without prescription. Prevalence and treatment of narcissistic personality disorder in the community: A systematic review blood pressure goes up and down buy clonidine online pills. Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old heart attack 43 year old woman clonidine 0.1 mg order otc. The historical roots of Organizational Behavior Management in the private sector: the 1950s­1980s. Stability of formal thought disorder and referential communication disturbances in schizophrenia. The development of motor skills and social relationships among primates through play. The scientific study of dreams: Network analysis, cognitive development, and content analysis. Developing evidence-based interventions for foster children: An example of a randomized clinical trial with infants and toddlers. Rethinking the development of "non basic" emotions: A critical review of existing theories. A sociobiological perspective on the development of human reproductive strategies. Development of cultural strategies of attention in North American and Japanese children. Predicting cognitive control from preschool to late adolescence and young adulthood. Prospective memory and what costs do not reveal about retrieval processes: A commentary on Smith, Hunt, McVay, and McConnell (2007). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1082­1088. Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Toward a dialect theory: Cultural differences in the expression and recognition of posed expressions. On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort. The analogical paradox: Why analogy is so easy in naturalistic settings, yet so difficult in the psychology laboratory. From American city to Japanese village: A cross-cultural investigation of implicit race attitudes. Light adaptation in cone vision involves switching between receptor and post-receptor sites. Sex differences in reaction time mean and intraindividual variability across the lifespan. Non-delusional pathological jealousy as an obsessivecompulsive spectrum disorder: Cognitive-behavioural conceptualization and some treatment suggestions. Do all psychological treatments really work the same in posttraumatic stress disorder Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy Differential susceptibility to context: Toward an understanding of sensitivity to developmental experiences and context. The evolutionary basis of risky adolescent behavior: Implications for science, policy, and practice. Fundamental dimensions of environmental risk: the impact of harsh versus unpredictable environments on the evolution and development of life history strategies. Prospective memory of the realization of delayed intentions: A conceptual framework for research. The effects of prenatal stress, and of prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure, on human sexual orientation. A bilingual word-length effect: Implications for intelligence testing and the relative ease of mental calculation in Welsh and English. Repressive adaptive style and self-reported psychological functioning in adolescent cancer survivors. Long-term working memory as an alternative to capacity models of working memory in everyday skilled performance. Statement based on interviews with forty "worst case" in the Milgram obedience experiments. Speech intelligibility in young cochlear implant recipients: Gains during year three. Predictions derived from the theories of kin selection and reciprocation assessed by anthropological data. Positive affect facilitates integration of information and decreases anchoring in reasoning among physicians. A multimethodological analysis of cumulative risk and allostatic load among rural children. Microcephalin, a gene regulating brain size, continues to evolve adaptively in humans. Beneficial effects of leptin on obesity, T cell hyporesponsiveness, and neuroendocrine/metabolic dysfunction of human congenital leptin deficiency. Self and identity in early adolescence: the pains and gains of knowing who and what you are. From form to meaning: A role for structural alignment in the acquisition of language. Lust, attraction, attachment: Biology and evolution of the three primary emotion systems for mating, reproduction, and parenting. Effects of therapeutic interventions for foster children on behavioral problems, caregiver attachment, and stress regulatory neural systems. Consistency of the factorial structures of personality rating from different sources. Peripheral feedback effects of facial expressions, bodily postures, and vocal expressions on emotional feelings. Caffeine-associated stimuli elicit conditioned responses: An experimental model of the placebo effect. Having an open mind: the impact of openness to experience on interracial attitudes and impression formation. Effects of adult attachment and presence of romantic partners on physiological responses to stress. Sibling differentiation in adolescence: Implications for behavioral genetic theory. The educational opportunities that lie in self-directed age mixing among children and adolescents. Some educational benefits of freely chosen age mixing among children and adolescents. Interpersonal context as an influence on sexual timetables of youths: Gender and ethnic effects. Is conditioning a useful framework for understanding development and treatment of phobias Presentation at the Evolution and Individual Differences Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the Human Behavior and Evolution Society, London, England. Efficacy of transcranial magnetic stimulation targets for depression is related to intrinsic functional connectivity with the subgenual cingulate. Patterns of brain electrical activity during facial signs of emotion in 10-month-old infants. Attachment stability from infancy to adulthood: Meta-analysis and dynamic modeling of developmental mechanisms. A dynamical systems approach to conceptualizing and studying stability and change in attachment security. Nongenomic transmission across generations in maternal behavior and stress response in the rat. The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Intact implicit and reduced explicit memory for negative self-related information in repressive coping. Age differences in social preferences among Taiwanese and mainland Chinese: the role of perceived time. Self-recognition in chimpanzees and man: A developmental and comparative perspective. Charting the acquisition of semantic knowledge in the case of developmental amnesia. Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study. When you and I are "we," you are not threatening: the role of self-expansion in social comparison. Major histocompatibility complex alleles, sexual responsivity, and unfaithfulness in romantic couples. Patterns of interaction in adolescent romantic relationships: Distinct features and links to other close relationships. Learning addition and subtraction: Effects of number words and other cultural tools. The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe. Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor. An adaptationist perspective on social learning, social feeding, and social foraging in Norway rats. Social influences on food choices of Norway rats and mate choices of Japanese quail. Social factors in the poison avoidance and feeding behavior of wild and domesticated rat pups. Social influences on foraging in vertebrates: Causal mechanisms and adaptive functions. Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Cerebral specialization and interhemispheric communication: Does the corpus callosum enable the human condition A critical period for enhanced synaptic plasticity in newly generated neurons of the adult brain. Even before formal instructions, Chinese children outperform American children in mental arithmetic. Preferred stimulation levels in introverts and extraverts: Effects on arousal and performance. Parental corporal punishment and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Behavioral inhibition: Stability and associations with adaptation from childhood to early adulthood. Speech recognition materials and ceiling effects: Considerations for cochlear implant programs. Thinking lightly about others: Automatic components of the social inference process. Parent­child relationship, temperament, and physiological reactions to fear-inducing film clips: Further evidence for differential susceptibility. Grouping has a negative effect on both subjective contours and perceived occlusion at T-junctions. Texting epic fail: Empirical evidence that text messaging during class disrupts comprehension of lecture material. Repressive coping style, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder after myocardial infarction. Duplex vision: Separate cortical pathways for conscious perception and control of action. A prospective study of memory for child sexual abuse: New findings relevant to the repressed-memory controversy. Forming attitudes that predict behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation. Computer learning by memory-impaired patients: Acquisition and retention of complex knowledge. Differetial trajectories of age-related changes in components of executive and memory processes. Neurocognitive impairments in schizophrenia: Their character and role in symptom formation. Young children extend novel words at the basic level: Evidence for the principle of categorical scope. Electrophysiological evidence for developmental changes in the duration of sensory memory. Conditioned opponent processes in the development of tolerance to psychoactive drugs. A functional neuroimaging study of sound localization: Visual cortex activity predicts performance in early-blind individuals. Out of sight, out of mind, out of site: Schooling and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The value of Psychology 101 in liberal arts education: A psychocentric theory of the university. Patterns of age mixing and gender mixing among children and adolescents at an ungraded democratic school. Playing in the zone of proximal development: Qualities of self-directed age mixing between adolescents and young children at a democratic school.

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