William J. Steinbach, M.D.

• Associate Professor
• Departments of Pediatrics and Molecular Genetics & Microbiology
• Duke University
• Durham, North Carolina

B women's health clinic columbus ohio purchase femara 2.5 mg without prescription, Similar epithelium but with much elongated rete processes and a more intense chronic inflammatory cell infiltrate women's health clinic university of maryland generic femara 2.5 mg on line. C women's health center utah buy discount femara 2.5 mg online, Considerable acanthosis is sometimes seen beneath the excess keratin breast cancer 7 tablet cases purchase femara with amex, here with surface irregularities from bacterial damage breast cancer ornaments discount 2.5 mg femara amex. D, Hyperkeratosis with mild intracellular edema and intercellular spacing as evidence of recurring irritation. B, There is verruciform hyperkeratosis with acanthosis and often, as in this case, with a prominent granular cell layer, but dysplastic cells are not seen. B, Leukoedema has a thin layer of surface parakeratin and is characterized by intracellular edema of the superficial epithelial layers, which may be difficult to differentiate from chronic chemical or mechanical trauma. C, Higher-power view of the vacuolated cells shows some with pyknotic nuclei (koilocyte-like changes), even in the surface layer of excess keratin. Most of the epithelium shows scattered keratinocytes with pale or clear cytoplasm (intracellular edema). The chronic use of whitening toothpaste may induce a similar grayish-white mucosal macule, which some have considered to be a variant of leukoedema. They may extend to the basal layer and may cluster into inverted wedge-shaped regions separated by normal spinous epithelial cells. Parakeratosis is commonly seen but is not pronounced unless there has been chronic trauma. Microscopically, this lesion typically presents with a more pronounced surface keratosis and have scattered chronic inflammatory cells within underlying stroma. Since leukoedema and white sponge nevus both have innocuous onsets in the childhood and teenage years, it may be impossible to distinguish between them except by the clinical "stretch test. The reader is referred to the following section pertaining to white sponge nevus for a more thorough discussion of the differential diagnosis of these lesions. It has no malignant potential and while it becomes slowly more pronounced during the younger years of life, it does not change significantly after 25 to 30 years of age. Should the affected individual be a user of tobacco products, the lesion will likely become less noticeable with habit cessation, but will not disappear. The underlying pathophysiology responsible for the altered epithelial cells is unclear but appears to be related or "wrinkles" crisscrossing the macule in a delicate lacelike pattern. The opalescent whitish-gray macule is poorly demarcated from surrounding mucosa and is occasionally seen on the soft palate and oral floor. B, the intracellular edema of superficial cells may be indistinguishable from those of leukoedema or severe chronic cheek bite. This keratotic mucosal alteration may be seen on vaginal and rectal mucosa, but the great majority of cases involve oral mucosa. White sponge nevus almost always presents during childhood and there is no gender predilection. Typically, bilateral white keratotic macules and plaques are found on the buccal mucosae, but labial, lingual, and other sites may be involved. Usually asymptomatic, rare examples of mild discomfort have been reported from secondary infection. The plaques do not change significantly when the cheeks are stretched, and, rarely, the plaques are small, multiple, and scattered about the affected mucosa rather than being a single more diffuse keratosis. The nuclei are typically pyknotic, and the cells may mimic the koilocytes of viral infections. Edematous cells may be organized into inverted triangles with broad bases along the surface, and there may be a thickened parakeratin layer. Deep indentations or grooves may be seen to extend from the surface almost to the basal layer, but the lower portions of the epithelium are otherwise not abnormal. In cytologic smears, occasional cells will have condensed eosinophilic cytoplasm immediately surrounding the nucleus. Leukoedema is another developmental phenomenon with childhood onset and abundant superficial epithelial cells with edema. It typically lacks the parakeratosis and vertical grooves of white sponge nevus, but there are times when the only viable means of distinguishing between the two is to stretch the affected mucosa; leukoedema tends to diminish or disappear when this is done, while no change is seen in white sponge nevus or other look-alike lesions. Frictional keratosis, especially chronic cheek bite keratosis, may also present with intracellular edema of superficial epithelial cells, but there is usually extensive surface keratosis, vertical infolding is absent, and only occasional nuclei are pyknotic. Scattered chronic inflammatory cells are usually found within the subepithelial stroma and mixed bacterial colonies are often attached to the damaged surface keratinocytes. It is also characterized by surface parakeratosis and occasional grooves or corrugations. This keratotic lesion may therefore exactly mimic the histopathology of white sponge nevus and may require clinical correlation for proper diagnosis. The smokeless tobacco lesion must be found in the region, typically mandibular vestibule, where the tobacco is habitually placed. Such lesions are, moreover, very seldom bilateral and they will almost always disappear after cessation of the tobacco habit. It is important to differentiate these two entities because smokeless tobacco keratosis is a low-grade precancer and requires followup examinations. Dyskeratosis congenita and pachyonychia congenita and the oral precancer leukoplakia show simply hyperkeratosis, without underlying intraepithelial edema, and hence are easily distinguished from white sponge nevus. White sponge nevus remains essentially unchanged after the first few months of onset. The occasional mildly symptomatic case may respond to topical antibiotics or antifungals. There is no malignant potential and it does not interfere with normal masticatory functions, and so no treatment is required except for the rare example of a plaque that extends onto the lip vermilion and is surgically removed for esthetic reasons. Hypoxia, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis, matrix features of dysplasia and early carcinoma, are not strong features in this particular potentially malignant lesion. Actinic cheilosis is a disease of persons older than 50 years of age and its frequency increases with advancing age. The labial changes develop so slowly that the patient is frequently unaware of a change, beginning with mild puffiness and vermilion atrophy, with admixed blotchy areas of pallor and erythema, perhaps with a bluish background hue. The normal demarcation between the vermilion zone and the skin of the lip becomes blurred or disappears. Painless breakdown ulceration may develop in one or more sites, especially in areas of mild trauma. Ulcers may last for months, even years, and may be difficult to differentiate from ulcerated squamous cell carcinoma, although the latter is typically more indurated. Ulceration, puffiness, and erythema may also represent actinic prurigo cheilitis, especially if focal areas of melanosis are seen on the vermilion and/or folliculitis is seen in the paravermilion skin. Atrophic stratified squamous epithelium is seen, often with marked parakeratin production, and possibly with epithelial dysplasia of the basal and parabasal layers. Fibrovascular tissues above and below the elastosis are often scattered with lymphocytes. The lower margin of the elastosis is relatively uniform throughout the lip, but areas of involvement may be separated laterally by less damaged stroma. Chronic folliculitis may be seen but one must in those cases rule out actinic prurigo cheilitis. Actinic cheilosis is an irreversible change, and squamous cell carcinoma, almost always well differentiated, develops in 6% to 10% of cases, up to 20% in some studies. B, the epithelium of actinic cheilosis is usually atrophic, with scattered chronic inflammatory cells associated with the subepithelial streaking of solar elastosis, which here extends more deeply than sweat glands. The presence of solar damage adjacent to a vermilion carcinoma has been associated with a better prognosis than similar cancers without adjacent abnormality. Follow-up is recommended and patients should use lip balm with sunscreens to prevent further degeneration. Occurrence of induration, thickening, ulceration, or leukoplakia should lead to biopsy for histopathologic evaluation. In severe cases without malignancy, a lip shave procedure (vermilionectomy) can remove the vermilion mucosa and replace it with a portion of the intraoral labial mucosa. Esthetic results are difficult with surgery and so current firstline therapies include: topical application with imiquimod or 5-fluorouracil, cryotherapy, laser therapy, or photodynamic therapy. The etiology is unknown, but it is presumed by many to have an association with psoriasis. Typically, there is a shallow, nonhemorrhagic groove between the line and the smooth mucosal patch, and up to one-fifth of all examples are associated with a generalized fissuring of the tongue (fissured tongue, scrotal tongue, hamburger tongue). Individual smooth macules often coalesce, and the overall appearance usually changes on a weekly or monthly basis. Most examples are asymptomatic, but lesions with secondary candidiasis may present with a burning sensation of the lingual dorsum, especially toward the tip of the tongue. The latter cases are called benign migratory stomatitis or erythema migrans and may present with either white or red serpiginous lines. Reiter syndrome, a combination of conjunctivitis, urethritis, and arthritis demonstrates oral psoriasiform, erythematous macules in one of every 10 cases. Deep, variably painful aphthous-like oral ulcers in Reiter syndrome are common but not universal; they help distinguish oral lesions from simple geographic tongue or mouth. All of the microscopic features of psoriasis are present in benign migratory glossitis and migratory stomatitis, but these will not be obvious unless the biopsy is taken from a prominent serpiginous line at the periphery of a depapillated patch. There is no liquefactive degeneration of basal cells, as seen in lichenoid lesions, and there is no ulceration except in cases of Reiter syndrome. True psoriasis of the oral mucosa would present, of course, an identical appearance under the microscope, but this disease variant is much less common. Other pustular diseases include pyostomatitis vegetans, stomatitis herpetiformis, and the hyperplastic inflammatory response (parulis), at the orifice of a fistula, extending to the surface from a dental or periodontal abscess. These lesions all present with microabscess or neutrophilic infiltration of the lower portions of the epithelium or of the underlying connective tissues. Also, occasional examples of subcorneal pustular dermatitis are encountered in the mouth as subcorneal pustular mucositis, but the separation of the keratin layer from the spinous layer makes it rather easy to differentiate from migratory stomatitis. Symptomatic lesions can be treated with topical or systemic prednisolone, systemic cyclosporine, topical tacrolimus, oral rinses containing anesthetics, vitamin A, antihistamines and zinc supplements with variable results. A topical or systemic antifungal medication can be tried if a secondary candidiasis is suspected. In the mouth, lichen planus has several clinical variants with considerable cross-over between variants, and with occasional shifting from one variant to another. Most bullous and ulcerative lichen planus lesions also have this red surrounding mucosa; therefore these also are thought to be susceptible to malignant change. Some cases of lichenoid oral mucosal change have obvious etiologic associations, usually a systemic medication or mucosal contact with dental materials or certain spices. The great majority of cases present as irregular bilateral plaques of the buccal mucosa, but any oral surface can be affected, and occasional patients present with extensive involvement throughout the mouth. This reticular lichen planus, with its intersecting white lines characteristically show numerous very fine perpendicular lines along their length, and areas of intersection often have punctate papules of keratin hyperplasia; some prefer to term this reticular/ papular lichen planus. A lesser number of patients will show only the papules (papular lichen planus), and others will show serpiginous or circinate white lines, with or without a background of reticulated lines. This red macule is poorly demarcated from the surrounding normal mucosa and apparently represents epithelial atrophy, allowing underlying vascular flow to become more visible. Occasional lesions are primarily erythematous, with very few white streaks, and these must be distinguished by biopsy from erythroplakia and erythroleukoplakia, as well as from oral psoriasis. Occasional lesions also will present with intermittent, sometimes severe, ulceration (ulcerative lichen planus) or blistering of the mucosa (bullous lichen planus, erosive lichen planus). Most cases of reticular or plaque lichen planus are asymptomatic, but atrophic and erosive lesion may be mildly tender and sensitive to abrasive contacts or acidic foods; occasional lesions are very painful. The clinician must be diligent in the attempt to relate the oral lesion to adjacent dental materials or a patient habit, such as chewing gum with cinnamon (cinnamon reaction, cinnamon mucositis) or peppermint flavoring. When specific contact hypersensitivity is suspected, the diagnostic term lichenoid contact reaction is preferred. B­D, the epithelium typically shows saw-toothed rete tips (D) with a thickened basement membrane and a subepithelial band of chronic inflammatory cells (B and C). C and E, Blister formation in lichen planus occurs at the level of the basement membrane and the typical subepithelial band of chronic inflammatory cells may be lacking in these sites (E). F, Immunofluorescence demonstrates fibrinogen reactivity at and below the level of the basement membrane. A variety of medications, especially nonsteroid antiinflammatory drugs, antihypertensives, anticonvulsants, antimalarials, and antiretrovirals, have been implicated in such reactions of the oral mucosa. The clinician must also be diligent in his or her search for induration, ulceration, and other clinical signs of malignancy. Isolated white or mixed red/white lesions, especially those seen on the lateral/ventral tongue or floor of mouth, should be viewed with suspicion and biopsied for definitive diagnosis. When plasma cells or Langerhans cells are numerous, lichenoid reaction rather that autoimmune lichen planus, should be suspected. Liquefactive or ballooning degeneration of cells of the basal and suprabasal layers is also characteristic of lichen planus, although it may be patchy and minimally present. Degenerated apoptotic cells may be seen in the epithelium, and occasional cases will show eosinophilic colloid or Civatte bodies between the spinous cells. Many cases will show a thickened or hyalinized basement membrane, perhaps with scattered clear microvesicles, and in dark-skinned individuals, melanin pigmentation may be seen within and beneath the basal cell layer (reactive melanosis, pigment incontinence). In the latter, no epithelium remains along the ulcer bed itself, and in the former, small epithelial tags may be seen to lift away from the basement membrane at the ulcer edge. When lesions are ulcerated, the lichenoid band of inflammatory cells may be replaced by the more randomly distributed chronic and acute inflammatory cells of granulation tissue. The band is still present beneath bullous lesions for several hours after the blister has ruptured.

The prognosis depends on clinical stage of the disease breast cancer 800 number buy discount femara 2.5 mg on line, type of disease women's health center victoria tx buy 2.5 mg femara with amex, availability of effective drugs women's health clinic vancouver hastings generic femara 2.5 mg buy on-line, adherence to treatment menstruation vs pregnancy bleeding buy femara on line amex, and supportive care measures pregnancy 8 weeks heartbeat 2.5 mg femara purchase mastercard. The vast majority of the lesions observed in the nasal cavity are of the lepromatous type and consist of large numbers of macrophages filled with massive quantities of acid-fast bacilli. Occasionally, some of these cells are seen along nerves that show Schwann cells containing large numbers of bacilli. The bacilli may also be found within endothelial cells and fibroblasts, mucous glands and ducts, and vascular lumens. The bacilli are highlighted with the Fite-Faraco modification of the Ziehl-Nielsen stain. All these latter entities have significantly different epidemiologic findings, clinical Clinical Features. Rhinoscleroma is a chronic granulomatous disease that is uncommon in North America but endemic in parts of Central and South America, North and Central Africa, and certain areas of Eastern Europe. In severe cases, the infection causes bone destruction and nasal obstruction with extension into the paranasal sinuses, orbit, middle ear, larynx, and tracheobronchial tree. Clinically, rhinoscleroma is characterized by three phases: rhinitic, florid, and fibrotic. The initial symptoms resemble a common cold, but in the fully developed disease, there are also dysphonia, aphonia, and anosmia. Clinically, anesthesia of the soft palate and hypertrophy of the uvula should suggest the diagnosis of rhinoscleroma. In advanced cases, the destruction of the nasal cartilage, with the formation of nodules, causes a severe deformity referred to as Hebra nose. Pathologically, rhinoscleroma is also characterized by three phases: rhinitis or catarrhal, florid or granulomatous, and fibrotic. In the catarrhal phase, the tissue 3 Nonsquamous Lesions of the Nasal Cavity, Paranasal Sinuses, and Nasopharynx 131 organism Rhinosporidium seeberi. Microscopically, rhinosporidiosis is characterized by polypoid fragments of hyperplastic respiratory or squamous epithelium accompanied by a lymphoplasmacytic infiltrate. The sporangia contain numerous endospores with a characteristic arrangement of immature and mature forms. The immature forms are small, whereas the mature forms are larger and contain eosinophilic cytoplasmic globules. The diagnosis rests on the identification of these structures in the surgical material or by smear preparations. Warthin-Starry staining highlights rod-shaped microorganisms (Klebsiella rhinoscleromatis) (inset). Sinonasal fungal disease can be clinically separated into noninvasive (allergic fungal sinusitis and mycetoma) and invasive (acute/fulminant and chronic) forms. Allergic fungal sinusitis is a noninvasive fungal pansinusitis that occurs in immunocompetent individuals, with a long-standing history of atopy, elevated levels of total immunoglobulin E, and peripheral eosinophilia. Other fungi capable of causing invasive fungal sinusitis include Aspergillus,54 Candida spp. The mucin changes are nonspecific and consist of abundant neutrophils, cellular debris, and granulation tissue. In the granulomatous phase, rhinoscleroma is characterized by pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia of the overlying mucosa and a dense chronic inflammatory infiltrate composed of lymphocytes, plasma cells with numerous Russell bodies, and large macrophages with clear vacuolated cytoplasm. In inconclusive cases, the bacteria can be identified in 1- to 2 mm-thick sections, stained with toluidine blue. In the final fibrotic phase, there are variable degrees of fibrosis and the Mikülicz cells are absent or are difficult to identify. The differential diagnosis of rhinoscleroma includes leprosy, sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, fungal infections, and sinonasal sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy (Rosai-Dorfman disease). Clinicopathologic features, special stains, and microbiologic cultures are helpful in excluding other granulomatous infections. In leprosy, the organisms are acid fast and can be demonstrated by the Fite stain. Rhinoscleroma lacks the large atypical cells with emperipolesis that show positive S100 protein immunostaining seen in sinus histiocytosis with massive lymphadenopathy. Surgery and laser ablation of tissue deformities caused by fibrous masses in the late fibrous phase of rhinoscleroma may be considered to correct stenotic nasal passages. However, these corrective procedures can only be used after the patient is clinically and histologically free of disease, and cultures have been negative. Charcot-Leyden crystals with clusters of degenerated eosinophils are constant microscopic features. Because of morphologic similarities of the fungi causing allergic fungal sinusitis, cultures are mandatory for the determination of the exact organism responsible. Mycetomas caused by Aspergillus niger specifically are unique, exhibiting hyphal pigmentation and calcium oxalate crystal deposition. The fungal organisms are readily identified by silver staining but often are not numerous. The degree of inflammation is often sparse, and out of proportion to the extent of fungal infestation. The differential diagnosis of fungal infections in the sinonasal tract includes a large number of nonneoplastic and neoplastic diseases. Sinonasal tuberculosis is generally accompanied by pulmonary disease and a positive skin test. Microscopically, there are large numbers of granulomas with caseous necrosis that are not typically seen in fungal infections. They also reveal the presence of an atypical lymphoid infiltrate not seen in sinonasal mycotic infections. The treatment and prognosis of sinonasal fungal disease varies depending on the type of infection, causative organisms, and underlying medical conditions. The invasive forms, especially opportunistic mycosis associated with diabetes mellitus or immunosuppression, require radical surgical debridement and intravenous antifungal therapy. In those affected by mucormycosis, surgery has an important role in removing devitalized tissues because the vascular thrombosis present in necrotic tissues interferes with the delivery of antifungal agents. The treatment of allergic fungal sinusitis varies according to clinical features and extent of disease. In the case of mucormycosis, the most important determinant of survival is the underlying disorder. Patients with no underlying disease had a survival rate of approximately 75%, whereas those with leukemia or renal disease had a survival rate of 20%. The histopathologic appearance of lymphoid hyperplasia in the sinonasal tract and nasopharynx is similar to that seen in lymph nodes. B, Mycetoma (fungus ball) consists of a noninvasive, matted collection of fungal hyphae. C, Chronic invasive fungal sinusitis demonstrates granulomatous inflammation and acute-angle branching fungal hyphae (inset). D, Acute fulminant fungal sinusitis demonstrates prominent fungal angioinvasion and resulting tissue necrosis. Mucor, the most common causative organism, has wide, ribbon-like pauciseptate hyphae with right-angle branching (inset). The presence of a monomorphic cellular infiltrate and cytologic atypia should be viewed with suspicion. Care should be taken to exclude a neoplasm with a prominent lymphoid infiltrate or an undifferentiated (lymphoepithelial) carcinoma, particularly in the nasopharynx. Rarely, Castleman disease or angiolymphoid hyperplasia with eosinophils can also present as a nasopharyngeal polypoid tumor. Some cases have monocytoid B-cell hyperplasia and interfollicular zone expansion by aggregates of immunoblasts and plasma cells. Additional findings were infiltration of the germinal centers by small lymphocytes, resulting in fragmentation of the hyperplastic germinal center, a phenomenon known as follicle lysis, and follicular involution resulting in prominence of blood vessels accompanied with infiltration by sheets of plasma cells and immunoblasts. Laboratory manifestations include anemia, red-cell autoantibodies, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia. B, the lesional cell is the pale-staining histiocyte with abundant granular cytoplasm and large round nuclei. These cells are positive for S100 protein, and this stain highlights emperipolesis (empty "holes" in the cytoplasm) (inset). The cytoplasm of these histiocytes is abundant and clear or eosinophilic and often contains numerous intact lymphocytes, many of them within vacuoles. Lymphoid aggregates resembling a lymph node are also commonly seen in the nasal mucosa. The foamy histiocytes of rhinoscleroma contain gram-negative rods consistent with Klebsiella rhinoscleroma, while histiocytes in leprosy may show cytoplasmic acid-fast bacilli. Usually, it is patchy in distribution and may have a "geographical" appearance, with a 3 Nonsquamous Lesions of the Nasal Cavity, Paranasal Sinuses, and Nasopharynx 135 prominent rim of palisaded epithelioid and spindle-shaped macrophages. The giant cells and granulomas can be found within the vessel wall, adjacent to the vessel, or distant from the affected vessels. All stages of vasculitis may be present, ranging from acute to granulomatous to healed. The acute stage is characterized by patchy fibrinoid necrosis of the vessel wall accompanied by a prominent neutrophilic infiltrate. Extravasated red blood cells, fibrin thrombi, and swollen endothelial cells are often seen. Multinucleated giant cells and histiocytes are present in granulomatous vasculitis. Healed vasculitis is characterized by concentric fibrosis surrounding an endothelium-lined vascular lumen. Frequently, recognition of involved blood vessels is difficult; in these instances, the use of elastic stains is helpful to identify the fragmented elastic remnants. The diagnosis of aggressive sinonasal infections resides in close clinicopathologic correlation and the identification of an infectious agent in microbiologic cultures or biopsy material. Although the mucosa of the oral cavity, sinonasal tract, and nasopharynx can be inflamed and ulcerated, it is rare to find the extensive cartilage and bone destruction associated with sinonasal lymphoma. In difficult cases, immunophenotyping and potentially molecular pathology studies should be used to exclude the diagnosis of lymphoma. Patients with the limited form of the disease may have only nasal and pulmonary involvement, without glomerulonephritis or systemic involvement. Most patients present with a history of long-standing and progressive nasal obstruction, accompanied by discharge. This process, usually seen after surgery or trauma in the sinonasal region, is characterized by necrosis of the nasal seromucinous glands, with secondary squamous metaplasia. These tumors have a more infiltrative appearance, and, in the case of mucoepidermoid carcinoma, variable numbers of mucous and intermediate cells can also be identified. Necrotizing sialometaplasia is a self-resolving disorder, though rare cases may recur. Paranasal mucoceles are chronic, nonneoplastic cystic lesions secondary to obstruction of the sinus outlet. In most instances, the blockage is secondary to an inflammatory or allergic process, although cystic fibrosis, trauma, or neoplastic processes have also been implicated. The gross appearance is characterized by a cyst filled with a mucoid or gelatinous secretion. In the internal type, the cyst herniates into the submucosal tissues of the bony wall of the sinuses, whereas in the external type, the cyst extends into the cranial cavity or subcutaneous tissues. The clinical and radiologic presentation can closely simulate those of a neoplasm, but the histologic findings are nonspecific and often resemble normal tissue. The pathologic diagnosis of sinus mucocele should be closely correlated with the clinical history and radiologic and surgical findings. The characteristic clinical and radiologic findings and the absence of tumor cells in pathologic material should exclude the possibility of a neoplasm. The treatment of mucocele consists of surgical relief of the sinus obstruction and decompression of the mucocele. This may be accomplished by endoscopic surgery or by removal of the medial maxillary wall. The septum and lateral nasal wall are most commonly affected, but involvement of the maxillary sinus, facial or orbital soft tissues, or subglottis can be seen. The inflammatory infiltrate is composed of numerous eosinophils, with variable numbers of B and T lymphocytes, plasma cells, neutrophils, and macrophages. Typically, the inflammatory infiltrate and the vasculitis become sparser as the fibrosis increases in density. Granuloma faciale is almost always seen in the face, more commonly affects males, and exhibits prominent vasculitis without concentric perivascular fibrosis. B, Despite this alarming radiographic appearance, the histologic appearance is typically unremarkable consisting of attenuated strips of sinonasal mucosa with nonspecific chronic inflammation. B, the lesional glands are often associated with smaller seromucinous glands, resembling seromucinous hamartoma. In the study by Wenig and Heffner, there were 27 males and four females with a median age of 58 years. At physical examination, the lesion appears as a polypoid mass most commonly arising in the posterior septum. Involvement of the lateral wall, middle meatus, and inferior turbinate is less common. The stroma surrounding glands is often edematous and contains a mixed inflammatory infiltrate resembling the stroma of inflammatory polyps. Myoepithelial/ basal cell markers are positive in most cases, but their absence does not support a diagnosis of adenocarcinoma. Although crowded, there is no glandular complexity or fusion, with stroma surrounding each gland. The most important differential diagnosis is a well-differentiated adenocarcinoma.

Background Muscles menopause 34 years old femara 2.5 mg order, tendons women's health clinic tampa fl 2.5 mg femara buy with mastercard, ligaments menopause center of mn purchase femara 2.5 mg with visa, fascia menstruation exhaustion cost of femara, and synovial capsules are all soft tissue structures womens health lynchburg buy genuine femara. Most patients will present to a doctor physiotherapist, or casualty department rather than the pharmacy. Arriving at a differential diagnosis Patients will often state that they have sprained or strained something. It is important to confirm their self-diagnosis because these terms are often used wrongly and interchangeably. Although sprains and strains can be graded according to the severity of the injury, it is of little practical value because it has no therapeutic consequence; therefore, the major role of the pharmacist is to determine whether the patient can manage the injury or whether referral is needed. Prevalence and epidemiology Most injuries are a direct result of physical activity or accident. Prevalence is therefore higher in people who actively participate in sports, and injuries involving the lateral ligaments of the ankle account for 25% of all sports injuries. Marked swelling, bruising, and pain occurring right after injury are suggestive of more serious injury, and referral to casualty for x-rays and further tests is needed. If the injury occurred in which impact forces were great, then fracture becomes more likely. Sudden onset associated with a single traumatic event suggests a mechanical problem such as tendon or ligament tearing. If the person has a foot injury and is unable to bear full weight while walking, then referral is needed. If the affected joint shows marked reduction in normal range of motion, this requires referral for fuller evaluation. Referred pain suggests nerve root compression ­ for example, a shoulder injury in which pain is also felt in the hand. Pain that is insidious in onset and progressive is more likely to be due to some form of degenerative disease and requires referral. Children: Bones are softer in children and therefore more prone to greenstick fractures (fracture of the outer part of the bone) and should be referred to exclude such problems. Older adults: Risk factors for fracture, such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis, should be established. When did it happen, and when did the patient present Presenting symptoms Nature of injury Range of motion Nature of pain Age of patient Activity- and sports-related soft tissue injuries 311 Clinical features of soft tissue injury In general, patients will present with pain, swelling, and bruising. The extent and nature of symptoms will be determined by the severity of the injury. Reaching behind the back also tends to worsen pain, and the patient cannot normally initiate abduction. Over time (usually months), marked stiffness and restriction in all the major ranges of motion is observed. This can make daily activities difficult, such as putting on clothes, although pain tends to be less prominent than on initial presentation. It is a relatively uncommon cause of shoulder pain, accounting for 2% to 5% of cases. It often occurs without warning or explanation and can vary in severity from day to day. Shoulder-specific conditions the shoulder provides the greatest range of motion of any joint. The prevalence of shoulder-related problems is uncertain, although estimates range from 4% to 20%, with rotator cuff syndrome accounting for up to 70% of shoulder problems. Epicondylitis of the elbow is a condition associated with repetitive forearm and elbow activities. Tennis elbow is characterized by pain and tenderness felt over the outer aspect of the elbow joint that might also spread up the upper arm. Rotator cuff syndrome the rotator cuff refers to the combined tendons of the scapula muscles that hold the head of the humerus in place. It is most often seen in patients older than 40 and is associated with decreased range of motion. Pain is worsened with repetitive overhead activity, Clavicle Knee-specific conditions Ligaments Bursae Biceps tendon the knee is the largest joint in the body and is subject to extreme forces. Traumatic knee injuries are common in young patients and, unsurprisingly, it is one of the most common sites of sport injuries, especially among footballers. If the injury occurred when twisting, this implies damage to the medial meniscus (incomplete rings of cartilage that promote joint stability) because the medial collateral ligament is attached to the meniscus and forces applied to the ligament result in tears of the meniscus. Pain can be aggravated by prolonged periods of sitting down in the same position or going up and down stairs. Pain is experienced usually at the front of Ankle- and foot-specific conditions the majority involve sprained ankles whether through sporting activity or just as a result of accidents. Three sets of ligaments provide stability to the joint: the deltoid, lateral collateral and syndesmosis. Most patients will walk with a limp because the ankle cannot support their full weight. Achilles tendon injuries Injuries to the structures associated with the Achilles tendon are usually seen in runners or athletes involved in jumping sports. Pain is felt behind the heel, just above the calcaneus, and progressively worsens the longer the injury lasts. Common muscle strains Thigh strains Tears of the quadriceps (front of the thigh) and hamstring (back of the thigh) are very common. Patients will not always be able to recall a specific event that has caused the strain. Pain and discomfort are worsened when the patient tries to use the muscle, but daily activities can usually be performed. Plantar fasciitis the plantar fascia extends from the calcaneus to the middle phalanges of the toes. Patients will present with tenderness and pain felt along the plantar surface of the foot and heel. Delayed onset muscle soreness this is a common problem and follows unaccustomed strenuous activity. For example, the patient might describe playing football for the first time in a long while or having just started going to aerobic classes. Pain is experienced within 24 to 314 Musculoskeletal conditions 48 hours and will resolve within 5 to 7 days. Patients should be encouraged to properly stretch before exercising to minimize the problem. Conditions to eliminate Shin splint syndrome Recreational runners and people unaccustomed to regular running can experience pain along the front of the lower third of the tibia. It is caused by over stretching the tibial muscle and is usually precipitated by running on hard surfaces. Clinically, joint swelling is the key feature, with associated pain and local tenderness over the bursa. Patients experience a dull ache along the affected metatarsal shaft that changes to a sharp ache behind the metatarsal head. It is often seen in those patients that have a history of increased activity or a change in footwear. Acute injuries that show immediate swelling and severe pain Marked decrease or excessive range of movement in any joint Patients unable to bear any weight on an injured ankle or foot Children <12 years and older adult patients May suggest major ligament disruption or complete tear Fractures more likely Gout Acute attacks of gout are exquisitely painful, with patients reporting that even bedclothes cannot be tolerated. Evidence base for over-the-counter medication and practical prescribing and product selection Prescribing information relating to medication for soft tissue injuries is the same as for acute low back pain (see earlier discussion). However, nondrug treatment plays a vital and major role in the treatment of acute soft tissue injuries. If the median nerve becomes trapped, it can cause numbness and tingling in the hand. Often, the patient will awaken in the night with numbness and tingling pain that radiates to the forearm, which sometimes extends to the shoulder. Rest Ice Repetitive strain injury this condition, also termed chronic upper limb pain syndrome, often results after prolonged periods of steady hand Rest allows immobilization, enhancing healing and reducing blood flow. Bags of frozen peas wrapped in a towel are ideal to use on the injury because they conform to body shape and provide even distribution of cold. Activity- and sports-related soft tissue injuries 315 Compression Elevation A crepe bandage provides a minimum level of compression. Ideally the injured part should be elevated above the heart to help fluid drain away from the injury. The multiple-choice questions are designed to test knowledge and application of knowledge, and the case studies allow this knowledge to be put in context in patient scenarios. An injury to a ligament An injury to the muscle An injury to a tendon An injury that affects both the muscle and the ligament An injury that affects both the ligament and tendon 9. He telephones the pharmacy for advice ­ he cannot walk properly because he has stiff legs. Which condition is he most likely to be experiencing after his football activities Shin splint syndrome Thigh strain Hamstring strain Delayed onset muscle soreness Chondromalacia 9. Advise that a heat spray rather than a rub would be better because it has a quicker onset of action. Cruciate ligament Deltoid ligament Medial collateral ligament Posterior talofibular ligament Anterior talofibular ligament Self-assessment questions 317 9. Paracetamol Aspirin Naproxen Ibuprofen Diclofenac Caffeine Codeine White willow bark 9 Questions 9. Lateral epicondylitis Medial epicondylitis Rotator cuff syndrome Bursitis Plantar fasciitis Chondromalacia Stress fracture Sciatica Select, from A to H, which of the above medicines: 9. This means options a, d and e are incorrect; b or c could be correct because the pain is described as moving down the leg. However, strains involve tearing of muscle fibres only so b is the correct answer. Shin splint syndrome (a) and chondromalacia (e) are more long-term problems and can be ruled out. However, if the cause was a strain, the pain would normally be experienced shortly after activity and not after a couple of days. Ligaments (a) bind bones together; bursae (c) act as cushions in joints; cartilage (d) is a tissue that helps with structural support. Heat rubs (c) will not help reduce pain, and arnica (e) has very little evidence of a pain-relieving effect. The pronator teres (c) pronates the forearm, and the extensor carpi (e) extends and abducts the wrist. The injury appears to be manageable through self-care and thus options c and e are also incorrect. With ankle strains it is the ligament which is anterior which is more commonly affected because it absorbs most of the negative impact when the ankle twists in an unnatural way. Rotator cuff and frozen shoulder can wake the patient but it is frozen shoulder (b) that is the more likely of the two to cause this problem. In medial epicondylitis, pain is seen on the inner aspect compared to the outer aspect in lateral epicondylitis. Discounting these options only leaves rotator cuff syndrome that is seen with repetitive activities. Inflammation is a key pathological finding Morning stiffness usually lasts less than 30 minutes Osteoarthritis commonly affects small joints Pain is eased by movement Pain is usually worst in the morning Questions 9. Asthmatics Children under 16 Elderly Patients with heart failure Patients with a peptic ulcer Select, from A to E, which of the above groups of people are more prone to: 9. Codis tablets Ibugel Panadol Advance tablets Radian B muscle rub Voltarol Emulgel 9. Bursa Cartilage Ligament Muscle Tendon Select, from A to E, which of the above medicines: 9. If a, b and c are correct If a and b only are correct If b and c only are correct If a only is correct If c only is correct b. Radian B contains multiple ingredients that have a rubefacient effect but have no proven pain-killing effect. General malaise could be a sign of infection if an association with the back pain is suspected, and again should be referred. Pain that radiates can occur but radiates toward the forearm rather than the hand. She has just slipped off the pavement edge and believes she has sprained her ankle. Paracetamol (with or without codeine) could be offered, but the analgesic effect of codeine is questionable, and the codeine content is likely to worsen her already existing constipation. Rubefacients contain essential oils, salicylates, nicotinates, capsicum, camphor, turpentine, and menthol. Evidence is lacking with regard to their efficacy in decreasing pain but they help in masking pain symptoms. However, she should be told that if she experiences any indigestion-type symptoms to stop using the product. She is visiting from Australia to see relatives and asks for Mersyndol because she has been told that it is stronger than Panadol. You need to find out more about her pain and why she feels she needs a stronger pain killer. Of course, it does not address the underlying cause of the pain and this should be your next line of enquiry. Questions should be asked about the following: · · · · · What is the site of the pain, and is there any radiation of the pain She goes on to tell you she takes quite a few medicines and the pharmacist back home always wants to know what she takes before giving her anything.

Paragangliomas have been reported as primary tumors in the nasopharynx pregnancy signs and symptoms purchase femara no prescription, nasal cavity menstruation 9 tage purchase femara with paypal, and paranasal sinuses breast cancer 2014 game femara 2.5 mg mastercard,287­289 or as secondary lesions extending from a carotid body or jugulotympanic or vagal paraganglioma pregnancy nose purchase femara 2.5 mg without prescription. Paragangliomas are most commonly seen as polypoid or exophytic masses in the middle or inferior turbinate women's health center west bloomfield 2.5 mg femara order free shipping. They have also been described in the posterior ethmoidal area, lateral and posterior pharyngeal walls, and posterior choana. The recognition of paragangliomas in the sinonasal tract is mainly based on the awareness of their occurrence in this region. The microscopic characteristics are similar to those of paragangliomas in other head and neck locations. Paragangliomas may show significant nuclear pleomorphism; however, they are not mitotically active. There are two cell types, the predominant myoepithelial cells and scattered eosinophilic ductal cells. C, Features of myoepithelial cell differentiation include clear cytoplasm and eosinophilic matrix production. D, Most cases demonstrate bizarre surface squamous epithelial atypia, which may represent a premalignant change. Pituitary adenomas may be distinguished from paragangliomas based on smaller tumor cell size and the immunohistochemical expression of cytokeratins and specific pituitary hormones. This may be useful prognostically (a lack of expression is associated with an increased risk of metastasis) and may also guide genetic screening. Sinonasal paragangliomas generally behave in a benign fashion, but rare cases of malignant paraganglioma of the nasal cavity have been described. The treatment of sinonasal paragangliomas is complete surgical resection, if possible. In recurrent or malignant tumors, surgical debulking and radiotherapy may provide long-term local control. Primary malignant melanoma of the sinonasal tract constitutes approximately 1% of all melanomas. In the nasal cavity, involvement of the anterior septum, inferior turbinate, and middle turbinate is most common. The maxillary antrum, followed by the ethmoid sinuses, are the most frequently involved paranasal sinuses. There is no sex or race predilection, and 80% of the patients are older than 50 years of age with median age in the seventh decade. A, Cytokeratin staining is biphasic, with strong staining in ducts and weak staining in myoepithelial cells. The polypoid masses are 2 to 3 cm in size; however, larger tumors involving several paranasal sinuses and extending into the skull base are not uncommon. Tumors may show plasmacytoid, rhabdoid, or large, pleomorphic, multinucleated, bizarre giant cells and rarely clear or vacuolated cells. Tumor cells usually exhibit significant nuclear pleomorphism and numerous mitotic figures, including atypical forms. The neoplastic cells are arranged in an array of architectural patterns: solid, organoid, trabecular, alveolar, or any combination of these patterns. However, unlike the cutaneous and oral melanoma, sinonasal melanoma does not present as pure in situ preinvasive or intraepithelial tumors. In amelanotic tumors, the use of these stains is very helpful in establishing a definitive diagnosis. These tumors may express neural markers such as neurofilament and synaptophysin,302,303 cytokeratins,304 and desmin. The differential diagnosis of sinonasal malignant melanoma varies according to the cellular morphology and predominant architecture of the primary tumor. In lesions with epithelioid or spindle cell patterns, or both, the possibilities of a poorly differentiated carcinoma, sarcomatoid carcinoma, undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor, and other sarcomas should be excluded. The presence of melanin pigment and junctional activity accompanied by immunohistochemistry with an appropriate panel of antibodies is of great value in establishing a definitive diagnosis. Clinical history and in situ melanoma in the respiratory mucosa may help distinguish primary from secondary sinonasal melanoma. Clinical staging and histologic microstaging are independent predictors of survival. The vast majority (80%­ 85%) of sinonasal melanomas are localized (N0M0) at presentation, and less than 10% have regional lymph node and distant metastasis. In one study, vascular invasion was a significant predictor of disease progression. Malignant melanoma of the sinonasal tract is an aggressive disease with a 60% to 80% local recurrence rate, median survival of 2 to 3 years, and 5-year disease-specific survival varying from 10% to 47%. Maxillary or ethmoid sinus disease has a worse prognosis than nasal cavity disease, and patients presenting with involvement of multiple sinuses show the worst prognosis. The putative cell of origin is a basal reserve cell, the olfactory stem cell that gives rise to both neuronal and epithelial (sustentacular) cells. Clinical and radiologic examination usually demonstrates a polypoid mass high in the nasal cavity, often extending into the paranasal sinuses. The classic radiologic image is that of a dumbbell-shaped mass in the superior nasal cavity with extension into the intracranial cavity across the cribriform plate. The lobules may coalesce and interconnect, forming sheets of cells with a prominent capillary network. The neoplastic cells are generally small or medium in size and have pale eosinophilic cytoplasm with indistinct borders. The nuclei are round, somewhat vesicular, with fine "salt-and-pepper" chromatin and absent or inconspicuous nucleoli. B, the tumor cells grow around fibrillary material forming a Homer Wright rosette. Pagetoid extension of tumor cells in the adjacent respiratory epithelium and mucosal glands may sometimes be seen. Neuroendocrine carcinomas do not exhibit cell nests surrounded by S100­ positive cells. Rhabdomyosarcoma is one of the most common sinonasal malignant tumors in children, but is also encountered in adults. Therefore myogenic markers (desmin and myogenin) should be added to the immunohistochemical battery of stains for all small round blue cell tumors. This differential diagnosis is critical, as the prognosis of rhabdomyosarcoma in adults is dismal, despite multimodal therapy. For a more detailed description of rhabdomyosarcoma, please refer to Chapter 9 ("Soft Tissue Tumors") in this book. Moreover, the immunophenotypes of these lesions are different, although in rare cases sinonasal melanomas may be positive for neuroendocrine markers. Recurrence or metastases may develop as late as 21 years after initial diagnosis; therefore long-term follow-up is necessary. We describe here only those lesions that are restricted to , or seen with some frequency in, the nasal cavity and the paranasal sinuses. For a more detailed description of various soft tissue tumors, the reader is referred to Chapter 9 in this book, dedicated to soft tissue tumors. Angiofibromas are uncommon and constitute less than 1% of all head and neck tumors. The most common presenting symptoms are unilateral nasal obstruction and epistaxis. More than one-half of the patients have had symptoms for more than 1 year before diagnosis. The diagnosis of angiofibroma should be considered in any male younger than 30 years of age who presents with a nasopharyngeal mass. Angiofibromas possess androgen, testosterone, and dihydrotestosterone receptors and basic fibroblast growth factor. The lack of fibrillary background or S100 protein­positive sustentacular cells and the expression of keratin and specific pituitary hormones in pituitary adenomas indicate the correct diagnosis. B, Surgical specimen of an angiofibroma showing its lobular and markedly fibrous appearance. The stromal and endothelial cells express activating transforming growth factor 1, but only the stromal cells express -catenin and activating -catenin gene mutation, strongly suggesting that the stromal cells, not the vessels, are the neoplastic component of the tumor. Occasional multinucleated stromal cells and ganglion-like cells similar to those seen in proliferative myositis can be encountered. The shape and distribution of the blood vessels and stroma are variable within angiofibromas. The periphery of the lesion contains numerous small, capillary-like vessels lined with a single layer of endothelial cells with little fibrous tissue, whereas larger vessels with thick muscular walls surrounded by dense collagenous tissue are found in the center of the tumor. In fact, because of the characteristic radiologic appearance of angiofibroma, biopsy before definitive treatment is often unnecessary. These tumors should be distinguished from lobular capillary hemangioma, a distinction that can be extremely difficult in superficial biopsy material; however, the distinctive location of angiofibroma and its larger size and extension into adjacent structures make this differentiation possible. The differential diagnosis of nasopharyngeal angiofibroma also includes other highly vascular lesions, such as glomangiopericytoma, solitary fibrous tumor, and angiosarcoma, but the characteristic age, sex, and tumor location should strongly favor the diagnosis of angiofibroma. Furthermore, the thick blood vessels and the stellate stromal myofibroblasts seen in angiofibroma are not features of any of these neoplasms. Angiofibroma is a locally aggressive tumor and the prognosis depends on its local extent or stage. The recurrence rate is approximately 20% and is probably caused by incomplete resection in extensive, high-stage tumors. With recent advances in imaging and interventional neuroradiology, the recurrence rate has decreased considerably. Radiotherapy, hormone therapy, or chemotherapy may be used for unresectable or recurrent disease;348,349 however, sarcomatous transformation has been reported after radiotherapy. This unique, uncommon soft tissue neoplasm arises exclusively in the sinonasal tract. Most patients are middle-aged or elderly adults, although tumors may be seen in a wide age range (5­86 years). Physical and radiologic examinations reveal the presence of a polypoid mass high in the nasal cavity or a mass involving the paranasal sinuses, with secondary extension into the nasal cavity. Grossly, the tumors are polypoid, measuring from less than 1 to 8 cm (average, 3 cm). Histologically, at low-power magnification these tumors are well circumscribed and unencapsulated and have a uniform cellular appearance. The tumor cells are tightly packed with little intervening collagen and may show a solid, fascicular, whorled, or storiform architecture. They have a monotonous appearance with round to oval shape and indistinct cytoplasm. Immunostains are helpful in excluding other lesions with a hemangiopericytoma-like pattern. Solitary fibrous tumor is the most difficult lesion to distinguish from sinonasal glomangiopericytoma. Glomangiopericytomas have a homogeneously cellular architecture, in contrast to the more varied appearance of solitary fibrous tumor, which exhibits hypercellular and hypocellular areas with abundant collagen. Most glomangiopericytomas behave in an indolent fashion and have an excellent prognosis after total surgical resection. However, recurrences are reported in 30% to 40% of cases, even after several years, and may be related to incomplete resection. A, Sinonasal submucosa is filled with spindled cells arranged around variably hyalinized and dilated vessels. B, Tumor cells are ovoid to spindled with moderate eosinophilic cytoplasm and dark, bland nuclei. The predominant sites of involvement are the anterior portion of the nasal septum (Little area) and the tip of the turbinates. Lesions arising in pregnant females often undergo spontaneous regression after delivery. The individual capillaries vary from solid nests of plump endothelial cells without lumina to large vessels lined with prominent endothelial cells showing mitotic activity. The stroma may be fibromyxoid; rare examples with extensive myxoid changes and/or stromal hyalinization may pose significant problems in the differential diagnosis. Perhaps the most clinically important lesions that need to be distinguished from a lobular capillary hemangioma are granulation tissue, nasopharyngeal angiofibroma, glomangiopericytoma, and angiosarcoma. The capillaries in granulation tissue are frequently arranged perpendicular to the surface and lack the lobular architecture of a hemangioma. The thick abnormal blood vessels and spindle or stellate fibroblasts of angiofibroma are significantly different from the small capillary-size vessels with a lobular pattern seen in hemangiomas. The nuclear atypia and infiltrative pattern that characterize angiosarcoma are also absent in a hemangioma. They have an attenuated endothelial lining surrounded by a somewhat uniform population of plump to spindled cells, in contrast to the more prominent endothelial cells and the array of capillary-sized blood vessels with the lobular architecture of a hemangioma. Lobular capillary hemangiomas are benign lesions, are treated by simple surgical resection, and only rarely recur. B, Tumor vessels have a specific arrangement: lobules of tightly coiled capillaries surrounding larger, feeder vessels. Most cases have not been associated with neurofibromatosis, although some have been seen in this clinical setting. Patients with lesions primarily located in the nasal cavity usually have nasal obstruction and epistaxis, whereas those with tumors arising in the sinuses present with headaches and facial swelling. It is important to remember that these radiologic features are not necessarily an indication of malignancy. Most malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors are poorly differentiated hypercellular lesions and are composed of spindle cells with hyperchromatic nuclei with frequent mitotic figures and necrosis. Patients present with nonspecific symptoms like nasal obstruction and facial pressure.

D menopause occurs when buy femara 2.5 mg with amex, Cavernous hemangioma is comprised of large spaces filled with erythrocytes and lined by relatively inactive endothelial cells; inset higher-power view menopause and fatigue femara 2.5 mg on-line. Systemic corticosteroids women's health bendigo contact order femara us, other systemic therapies women's health center tampa buy cheap femara 2.5 mg online, or surgery may be considered if propranolol is contraindicated or ineffective women's health clinic bunbury cheap femara 2.5 mg buy. Treatment options include conservative surgical excision, sclerotherapy and laser ablation. Arteriovenous malformations are managed with embolization or preoperative embolization followed by surgery. Recurrence is not unusual unless the tumor is completely excised and may require additional embolization or surgical procedures. Most oral cases of hemangioendothelioma present as soft to moderately soft, asymptomatic, red or blue nodules that may be multiple and are usually quite superficial. Approximately 10% of cases are associated with other developmental anomalies or syndromes, including early-onset varicose veins, lymphedema, Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber syndrome, Kasabach-Merritt syndrome, and Maffucci syndrome. The hemangioendothelioma is a poorly circumscribed, usually biphasic proliferation of venous or capillary vessels. There are dilated 4 Lesions of the Oral Cavity 235 and congested veins with inactive endothelial cell nuclei and with occasional thrombi or phleboliths. These vessels are intermixed with solid sheets of epithelioid (epithelioid hemangioendothelioma) or spindle-shaped (spindle cell hemangioendothelioma) mesenchymal cells with minimal dysplasia, few mitotic figures, and minimal differentiation toward a vascular lumen or channel. In the Kaposiform variant, slit-like vascular channels, similar to those of Kaposi sarcoma, are seen, perhaps with mild extravasation of erythrocytes and hemosiderin deposition within or outside of macrophages. Hemangioendothelioma is treated with wide surgical excision, with more than half of all cases recurring at the operative site or several centimeters distant. Almost a third of epithelioid hemangioendotheliomas develop metastases in regional lymph nodes (at least 50% or more of all metastatic cases) or in the lungs, liver, or bones. The spindle cell hemangioendothelioma is rarely associated with metastasis but has a higher rate of local recurrence than does the epithelioid variant of this tumor (60% vs. Also chromosomal translocations t(12;19) and t(13;22) have been observed in lesional cells. It is soft or rubbery, is usually painless, and is relatively well demarcated from the surrounding mucosa. The lesion may be sessile or somewhat pedunculated, and may demonstrate a surface lobularity or telangiectasis. In addition, the oral/pharyngeal mucosa is, as previously mentioned, one of the most common locations for this rarely reported infantile hemangiopericytoma. Although this entity tends to recur after surgical excision, there is no potential for metastasis. The latter still shows a medullary tissue pattern, sometimes with palisading of cells, reminiscent of a neural tumor. The cells are haphazardly arranged and demonstrate round to ovoid nuclei and indistinct cytoplasmic borders. The blood vessels often show irregular branching, which results in a characteristic "staghorn" and "antlerlike" appearance. Focal necrosis, large tumor size, and a very high degree of cellularity are also considered to be signs of a more aggressive lesion. These features have been stratified into a risk assessment scheme for metastasis; see Chapter 9 for more details. The more bland lesions with minimal mitotic activity are treated by wide local excision, but the more active and dysplastic lesions are treated by radical surgical excision, with or without adjunctive radiotherapy. Large tumor size (>5 cm) and high mitotic index (>4/10 high-power fields) are risk factors for recurrence. It is a decidedly rare entity, representing less than 1% of all sarcomas in humans, and there is often little or no microscopic evidence for the vessels of origin, that is, blood or lymphatic vessels. Angiosarcoma of the oral region is a disease of older individuals, averaging more than 65 years of age. There is no gender predilection, and the tumor is typically a solitary or multifocal submucosal nodule that may be bosselated, may be ulcerated, and may bleed spontaneously. The clinical appearance may be vascular enough so as to be clinically indistinguishable from pyogenic granuloma. The lesion is rather painless, firm and fixed to surrounding soft tissues, and adjacent bony structures; margins are difficult to define. Those attached to or adjacent to bone typically cause destruction of the cortex and underlying cancellous bone. Some tumors grow rapidly, whereas others take many months to reach a size of 4 to 5 cm. Occasional lesions will be deceptively small at clinical examination, only to reveal deep and widespread submucosal extension at surgery. The histopathologic appearance of this neoplasm varies greatly, depending on the degree of cellular differentiation. There is, however, a tendency for the channels in angiosarcoma to anastomose with one another and to produce dilated sinusoids. Moreover, endothelial cells are typically hyperplastic and hyperchromatic, and background hemorrhage may be remarkable. The sarcoma has a strongly infiltrative, dissecting pattern at its interface with the normal surrounding tissues. Angiosarcoma of the oral region is treated by wide local excision, although radiotherapy is sometimes used for large or multifocal lesions. It is not unusual for tumor cells to be found more than a centimeter beyond the grossly evident lesional periphery. The prognosis is very much dependent on two features: the degree of cellular differentiation and the clinical size of the tumor. The overall survival is poor, approximately 10% to 15% after 5 years, with most recurrences and metastases occurring within 2 years of treatment. Langerhans cells are also protective in this regard: their numbers are considerably diminished in lesions with a superimposed candidiasis. Cutaneous multifocal blue-red nodules develop on the lower extremities and slowly increase in size and numbers, with some lesions regressing, while new ones are forming on adjacent or distant skin. Oral involvement in this form of the disease is quite unusual, but when it occurs, it does so as soft, bluish nodules of the palatal mucosa or gingiva. Sarcomatous involvement occurs on the skin, as well as internal organs, but oral mucosal lesions are decidedly rare. Individual lesions occur in many cutaneous locations, especially along lines of cleavage and on the tip of the nose. If the lesion overlies bone, it may invade and/or necrose the bone, and occasional lesion are so hemorrhagic or so painful that local treatment becomes a necessity. Individual lesions may coalesce and occasional patients never develop the nodular variant. A pronounced mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrate, including mast cells, is often noted, as are scattered erythrocytes and hemosiderin deposits. There may be an inconspicuous perivascular proliferation of spindle cells, but cellular atypia is minimal. In more established plaque lesions, the vascular proliferation involves the submucosa almost completely with a bland spindle cell proliferation limited to areas around proliferating vessels, resulting in a slightly elevated skin lesion. Slit-like vascular channels without a visible endothelial lining are typically interspersed with the spindle cells. Lesional cells have enlarged, hyperchromatic nuclei with mild to moderate pleomorphism. Occasional lesions show such exuberance of the spindled component that the vascular features become minimally visible. Rarely, the vascular component dominates with anastomosing channels lined by anaplastic endothelial cells, similar in appearance to angiosarcoma. Additional information relative to the histopathology of this entity is provided in more detail in Chapter 9. Small or localized lesions can be surgically excised with a small surrounding margin of clinically normal tissue, but more recent therapies have concentrated on low-dose irradiation and intralesional chemotherapy and sclerosing solutions. B, Vascular channels are lined by atypical endothelial cells and the background stroma shows erythrocyte extravasation with pleomorphic spindled and rounded lesional cells. Diagnosed cases are typically superficial but may extend deeply into underlying connective tissues. Rarely, multiple lesions are seen in infancy and childhood in lymphangiomatosis, the lymphatic counterpart to angiomatosis of blood vessels and a potentially life-threatening disease when visceral involvement occurs. Oral mucosal lymphatic malformations almost always become apparent before the second year of life; half of all cases are congenital. Oral lesions are most frequently found on the tongue, where they may produce considerable macroglossia and dysfunction. Any oral or pharyngeal site may, however, be affected and the most common head and neck location is the lateral neck, where this lesion typically contains large cystic spaces and is commonly called cystic lymphangioma or cystic hygroma, discussed in more detail in Chapter 11. Occasional lesions show only widely scattered clear "vesicles" interspersed with blood-filled papules or blebs. These capillary lymphatic venous malformations, previously referred to as hemangiolymphangioma, may be associated with occasional hemorrhagic episodes from trauma. The mandible is more often affected than the maxilla and the lesion typically disappears during the months after birth. Deeper lymphangiomas present with an irregular surface nodularity and are quite soft and painless. They may feel like a "ball of worms" on palpation, but are usually rather nonspecific and ill-defined. The lymphangioma consists of multiple, intertwining lymph vessels in a loose fibrovascular stroma, sometimes with scattered aggregates of lymphoid tissue. The vessels may have the diameter of capillaries, with a much-attenuated lumen, or may be so dilated that the cystic areas can be visualized at surgery. When other types of arterial and venous vessels are interspersed, the more specific diagnoses of capillary lymphatic malformation, lymphatic venous malformation, capillary lymphatic arteriovenous malformation, and capillary lymphatic venous malformation are used. Because of the nonencapsulated and "infiltrating" nature of the oral lymphangioma, complete removal is often inadvisable and may be impossible without excessive removal of surrounding normal structures. Surgical debulking of the tumor is therefore the typical treatment provided, with the understanding that additional debulking procedures will most likely be required as the affected child grows. Tumors of Fatty Tissue Tumors of fatty tissue are seldom encountered in biopsied oral and pharyngeal soft tissues. B, the fat pad is typically surrounded by dense fibrous stroma but it is not encapsulated. This bilateral condition is common in infants and is occasionally seen in adults, especially in obese persons and persons with rounded faces. It usually must be surgically excised to prevent further injury of the resultant exophytic mass. The first description of an oral lesion, referred to as a yellow epulis, was provided in 1848 by Roux in a review of alveolar masses. Generalized lipomatosis has been reported to contribute to unilateral facial enlargement in hemifacial hypertrophy. B, Mature adipocytes are admixed with fibrous streaks and surrounded by a pseudocapsule of compressed fibrous stroma. C, Higher-power views of adipocytes showing empty spaces, surrounded by adipocyte cell walls because the fat is removed during laboratory processing. The lesion may be pedunculated or sessile and occasional cases show surface bosselation. The tumor has a less dense and more uniform appearance than surrounding fibrovascular tissues when it is transilluminated. Few oral or pharyngeal lesions occur before the third decade of life and there is no gender predilection. Rarely, a lipoma will occur within maxillary bones or sinuses, but usually this entity is found in the buccal, lingual, or oral floor regions. As with all fatty tissue, a lipoma will float on the surface of formalin rather than sink to the bottom of a biopsy specimen jar. A thin fibrous capsule may be seen, and a distinct lobular pattern can be present. Quite often, however, lesional fat cells are seen to "infiltrate" into surrounding tissues, producing long, thin extensions of fatty tissue radiating from the central tumor mass. Occasional lipomas contain glandular structures (adenolipoma), cartilage, or bone. In addition, atypical fat cells suggest alternative diagnoses, such as lipoblastoma, hibernoma, or liposarcoma. Otherwise, lipoma of the oral and pharyngeal region is not difficult to differentiate from other lesions. Conservative surgical removal is the treatment of choice for oral lipoma, with occasional recurrences expected. An infiltrating lipoma often must be simply debulked, a portion of the infiltrating fat being deliberately allowed to remain to preserve as much normal tissue as possible. Such tumors tend not to metastasize unless dedifferentiation occurs in some of its component cells. No well-established causative factor has been identified, although trauma has been implicated. Development from a preexisting benign lipoma is very rare and most cases arise de novo. Oral liposarcoma can develop at any age but most cases occur in middle-aged individuals, with an average age of 57 years.

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