Adrianne K. Thompson, MD

• Chief, Body Imaging
• Wilford Hall Medical Center
• Lackland AFB, Texas

Because of the rarity of these lesions womens health neenah wi order cheapest xeloda and xeloda, the role of chemotherapy remains to be defined women's health clinic richmond hill order xeloda 500 mg fast delivery. Prognosis is excellent for benign lesions women's health center flint mi order xeloda canada, while it remains poor for patients with disseminated disease women's health questions- discharge xeloda 500 mg otc. Epidemiology and Pathology Sertoli cell tumors are exceedingly rare menstrual like cramps at 33 weeks purchase generic xeloda online, composing <1% of all testicular tumors. A bimodal age distribution is seen: 1-year old or younger and the 20- to 45-year-old age group. Benign lesions are well circumscribed, while malignant lesions show ill-defined borders. Microscopically, tumors appear heterogeneous with mixed amounts of epithelial and stromal components. Sertoli cells are columnar or hexagonal cells with a large nucleus and solitary nucleolus and contain vacuolated cytoplasm. Three types will be considered: Leydig cell tumors, Sertoli cell tumors, and gonadoblastomas. Epidemiology and Pathology Leydig cell tumors are the most common non­germ cell tumors of the testis and account for 1­3% of all testicular tumors. They follow a bimodal age distribution: the 5- to 9-year-old and the 25­35-year-old age groups. The cause of these tumors is unknown; unlike germ cell tumors, there is no association with cryptorchidism. Pathologic examination reveals a small, yellow, wellcircumscribed lesion devoid of hemorrhage or necrosis. Microscopically, hexagonally shaped cells with granular, eosinophilic cytoplasm containing lipid vacuoles are seen. Reinke crystals are fusiform-shaped cytoplasmic inclusions that are pathognomonic for Leydig cells. Virilization is often seen in children, and gynecomastia may be present in 30% of adults. Because of the rarity of these tumors, minimal endocrine data on these patients are available. Most of these tumors occur in patients younger than 30 years, although the age distribution ranges from infancy to >70 years. Gross examination reveals a yellow or gray-white lesion that can vary in size from microscopic to >20 cm and may exhibit calcifications. Microscopically, three cell types are seen: Sertoli cells, interstitial cells, and germ cells. Some reports support adjuvant chemotherapy for primary testicular lymphoma, with improved survival rates of up to 93% after 44 months of follow-up. Leukemic Infiltration of the Testis the testis is a common site of relapse for children with acute lymphocytic leukemia. Bilateral testicular irradiation with 20 Gy and reinstitution of adjuvant chemotherapy constitute the treatment of choice. Clinical Findings the clinical manifestations are predominantly related to the underlying gonadal dysgenesis and are discussed elsewhere in this book. It is noteworthy that four-fifths of patients with gonadoblastomas are phenotypic females. In the presence of gonadal dysgenesis, a contralateral gonadectomy is recommended because the tumor tends to be bilateral in 50% of cases in this setting. The most common primary site is the prostate, followed by the lung, gastrointestinal tract, melanoma, and kidney. The typical pathologic finding is neoplastic cells in the interstitium with relative sparing of the seminiferous tubules. Epidemiology and Pathology Lymphoma is the most common testicular tumor in a patient older than 50 years and is the most common secondary neoplasm of the testis, accounting for 5% of all testicular tumors. It may be seen in three clinical settings: (1) late manifestation of widespread lymphoma, (2) initial presentation of clinically occult disease, and (3) primary extranodal disease. Gross examination reveals a bulging, gray or pink lesion with ill-defined margins. Epidemiology and Pathology Extragonadal germ cell tumors are rare, accounting for approximately 3% of all germ cell tumors. Debate continues over whether these lesions originate from "burned-out" testicular primaries or originate de novo. Most retroperitoneal tumors have their origin from a testicular primary, whereas mediastinal germ cell tumors are truly ectopic. The most common sites of origin in decreasing order are mediastinum, retroperitoneum, sacrococcygeal area, and pineal gland. Clinical Findings Clinical presentation depends on the site and volume of disease. Retroperitoneal lesions may present with abdominal or back pain and a palpable mass. Sacrococcygeal tumors are most commonly seen in neonates and may present with a palpable mass and bowel or urinary obstruction. Pineal tumors may present with headache, visual or auditory complaints, or hypopituitarism. A careful testicular examination is mandatory along with ultrasonography to exclude an occult testicular primary. Treatment and Prognosis Fine-needle aspiration should be considered in patients with a known or suspected diagnosis of lymphoma while radical orchiectomy is reserved for those with suspected primary lymphoma of the testicle. Penile carcinoma occurs most commonly after the fifth decade in life, although rare case reports have included children. Several clinical and sociodemographic factors have been associated with the development of penile cancer or associated lesion such as smoking, chronic inflammatory conditions, poor genital hygiene, lack of circumcision, phimosis, and low socioeconomic status. One theory postulates that smegma accumulation under the phimotic foreskin results in chronic inflammation leading to carcinoma. Treatment and Prognosis Treatment of extragonadal germ cell tumors parallels that of testicular tumors. Primary chemotherapy should be employed for nonseminomatous elements with surgical excision of residual masses; however, prognosis remains poor for these patients. Adenomatoid tumors of the epididymis are the most common and typically occur in the third and fourth decades of life. They are typically asymptomatic, solid lesions that arise from any portion of the epididymis. Cystadenomas are benign lesions of the epididymis that are bilateral in 30% of cases and are frequently seen in association with von Hippel­Lindau disease. Histologically, these lesions are difficult to distinguish from renal cell carcinoma. In general, an inguinal approach should be used, and if frozen section confirms a benign lesion, epididymectomy should be performed. Of the malignant lesions, rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common, followed by leiomyosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, and liposarcoma. Differentiating between a hernia and a spermatic cord tumor may be possible only at exploration. If malignancy is diagnosed, attention should be directed toward performing wide local excision to avoid local recurrence. Precancerous Dermatologic Lesions Leukoplakia is a rare condition that most commonly occurs in diabetic patients. Balanitis xerotica obliterans is a white patch originating on the prepuce or glans and usually involving the meatus. Microscopic examination reveals atrophic epidermis and abnormalities in collagen deposition. Giant condylomata acuminata are cauliflower-like lesions arising from the prepuce or glans. These lesions may be difficult to distinguish from well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma. The lesion appears as a red plaque or velvety lesion with ulcerations or encrustations. Microscopic examination shows typical, hyperplastic cells in a disordered array with vacuolated cytoplasm and mitotic figures. Invasive Carcinoma of the Penis Squamous cell carcinoma represents most penile cancers. It most commonly originates on the glans, with the next most common sites, in order, namely, the prepuce and the shaft. Verrucous carcinoma is a variant of squamous cell carcinoma representing 5­16% of penile carcinomas. This lesion Epidemiology and Risk Factors Carcinoma of the penis accounts for <1% of cancers among males in the United States, with approximately one to two new cases reported per 100,000 men. Anemia and leukocytosis may be present in patients with longstanding disease or extensive local infection. Hypercalcemia in the absence of osseous metastases may be seen in 20% of patients and appears to correlate with volume of disease. Patterns of Spread Invasive carcinoma of the penis begins as an ulcerative or papillary lesion, which may gradually grow to involve the entire glans or shaft of the penis. The prepuce and shaft skin drain into the superficial inguinal nodes (superficial to fascia lata), while the glans and corporal bodies drain to both superficial and deep inguinal nodes (deep to fascia lata). There are many cross-communications so that penile lymphatic drainage is bilateral to both inguinal areas. Involvement of the femoral nodes may result in skin necrosis and infection or femoral vessel erosion and hemorrhage. Distant metastases are clinically apparent in <10% of cases and may involve lung, liver, bone, or brain. Differential Diagnosis In addition to the dermatologic lesions discussed previously, carcinoma of the penis must be differentiated from several infectious lesions. Condylomata acuminata appear as exophytic, soft, "grape cluster" lesions anywhere on the penile shaft or glans. Tumor Staging the staging system used most commonly in the United States was proposed by Jackson (1966), and the stages are as follows. Primary Lesion Biopsy of the primary lesion is mandatory to establish the diagnosis of malignancy. Treatment varies depending on the pathology as well as the location of the lesion. The goal of treatment in invasive penile carcinoma is complete excision with adequate margins. For lesions involving the prepuce, this may be accomplished by simple circumcision. For lesions involving the glans or distal shaft, partial penectomy with a 2-cm margin to decrease local recurrence has traditionally been suggested. Less aggressive surgical resections such as Mohs micrographic surgery and local excisions directed at penile preservation yet attaining a negative surgical margin have gained popularity. For lesions involving the proximal shaft, or when partial penectomy results in a penile stump of insufficient length for sexual function or directing the urinary stream, total penectomy with perineal urethrostomy has been recommended. It may appear as an area of induration or erythema, an ulceration, a small nodule, or an exophytic growth. Phimosis may obscure the lesion and result in a delay in seeking medical attention. In fact, 15­50% of patients delay for at least 1 year in seeking medical attention. Other symptoms include pain, discharge, irritative voiding symptoms, and bleeding. The primary lesion should be characterized with respect to size, location, and potential corporal body involvement. Careful palpation of the inguinal area is mandatory because >50% of patients present with enlarged inguinal nodes. Regional Lymph Nodes As discussed previously, penile carcinoma spreads primarily to the inguinal lymph nodes. A 4­6-week course of oral broad-spectrum antibiotics can be considered but is no longer used routinely. In the absence of nodal disease observation in low-stage primary tumors (Tis, T1) is warranted and a dynamic sentinel lymph node biopsy can be considered. In patients with high-stage tumors (cT2 or greater) and poor prognostic risk factors (eg, >50% poorly differentiated disease and lymphovascular invasion), it is reasonable to consider bilateral sentinel lymph node biopsy or more commonly bilateral superficial lymph node dissection and possibly deep dissection if any positive nodes are encountered. Patients who initially have clinically negative nodes but in whom clinically palpable nodes later develop should undergo a unilateral ilioinguinal node dissection. If there is tumor regression after neoadjuvant chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy, consolidative surgery with superficial and deep inguinal node dissection can be considered. In some cases, regional radiotherapy can provide significant palliation by delaying ulceration and infectious complications and alleviating pain. Systemic Disease Four chemotherapeutic agents demonstrate activity against penile carcinoma: bleomycin, methotrexate, cisplatin, and 5-fluorouracil. Prognosis Survival in penile carcinoma correlates with the presence or absence of nodal disease. Five-year survival rates for patients with node-negative disease range from 65% to 90%. For patients with positive inguinal nodes, this rate decreases to 30­50% and with positive iliac nodes decreases to <20%. In the presence of soft tissue or bony metastases, no 5-year survivors have been reported. Sporadic cases of melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and Paget disease have been reported.

Therapeutic overdose or the accidental or felonious administration of warfarin-containing rat poisons may result in moderate to severe hemorrhage because of the lack of functional K-dependent factors womens health resource center lebanon nh buy generic xeloda 500 mg. In type I linear kinetics breast cancer young women statistics cheap xeloda 500 mg with visa, the inhibitor fully inactivates the coagulation factor in vitro womens health daily magazine xeloda 500 mg order online. Autoanti-factor X antibodies are rare; however women's health center doctors west purchase xeloda 500 mg on line, factor X deficiency in amyloidosis may be caused by what seems to be an absorptive mechanism women's health quotations xeloda 500 mg overnight delivery. Repeat titers are used to follow the response to immunosuppressive therapy but are not needed for management of the bleeding symptoms. Once bleeding is controlled, immune tolerance therapy may reduce the inhibitor titer. Plasma exchange may also be used in severe cases, but the response is less reliable than the response to immune tolerance therapy. These inhibitors develop as lupus anticoagulant variants with prothrombin specificity in approximately 30% of lupus anticoagulant patients. It is rare to detect antiprothrombin antibodies that are not associated with lupus anticoagulant. They may arise spontaneously or in association with autoimmune or lymphoproliferative disorders. Both quantitative and functional abnormalities lead to decreased platelet adhesion to injured vessel walls, impairing primary hemostasis. However, when defined by the number of patients who experience bleeds serious enough to seek medical assistance, prevalence is 1 in 20,000 (0. It is also synthesized in megakaryocytes and stored in the a-granules of platelets (Chapter 10). Von Willebrand factor is stored in endothelial cell weibel-palade bodies and platelet a-granules. The monomer consists of 12 subunits within the 4 domains (A-D) that support the active sites at the locations indicated on the diagram. The monomers polymerize to form multimers of various lengths that reach up to 20 million Daltons molecular weight. The adhesion and aggregation sequences are essential to normal primary and secondary hemostasis. There is mild to moderate systemic bleeding, usually after a hemostatic challenge such as dental extraction or surgery. Laboratory testing is essential to identifying and confirming type 2 subtypes because the diagnosis affects treatment choices. The smaller multimers support less platelet adhesion activity than the normal high- or intermediate-molecular weight multimers. There may also exist moderate thrombocytopenia caused by chronic platelet activation because multimer-coated platelets indiscriminately bind the endothelium and become cleared. Both clinically and by phenotypic laboratory assays, the two entities are indistinguishable; the diagnosis requires molecular testing. It may be that the 10% to 20% prevalence data for subtype 2A and the 40% to 70% date for type 1 are artificially elevated by misdiagnosed subtype 2M cases. The disorder is also known as autosomal hemophilia because its clinical symptoms are indistinguishable from the symptoms of hemophilia except that it affects both men and women. Subtype 2N is suspected when a girl or woman is diagnosed with hemophilia subsequent to anatomic bleeding symptoms. In comparison, normal platelets agglutinate only at ristocetin concentrations greater than 0. In type 2M the multimeric pattern appears to be normal despite the reduced function to concentration ratio. Review of the clinical history with emphasis on age at onset of bleeding, comorbid conditions, and family history may signal acquired disease rather than the congenital form. Because of its antidiuretic property, repeated doses may lead to hyponatremia (low serum sodium). For this reason, it is necessary to monitor and regulate electrolytes during desmopressin acetate therapy. Therapy using nonbiologic preparations is preferred over human plasma-derived biologic therapy because nonbiologics eliminate the risk of viral disease transmission and circumvent religious objections to receipt of human blood products. All the coagulation factors whose absence is related to hemorrhage are depicted in this simplified diagram of the mechanism of the coagulation cascade. All sons of men with hemophilia A and non-carrier women are normal, whereas all daughters are obligate carriers of the disease. This phenomenon could be due to true homozygosity or double heterozygosity, such as in the female offspring of a hemophilic father and a carrier mother. Other possibilities include a spontaneous germline mutation in the otherwise normal allele of a heterozygous female or a disproportional inactivation of the X chromosome with the normal gene, termed extreme lyonization. The diagnosis of hemophilia A begins with laboratory testing after the birth of an infant to a mother who has a family history of hemophilia. In the absence of a family history, abnormal bleeding in the neonatal period, which may appear as easy bruising, bleeding from the umbilical stump, postcircumcision bleeding, hematuria, or intracranial bleeding, is considered suspicious for hemophilia. Severe hemophilia usually is diagnosed in the first year of life, whereas mild hemophilia may not become apparent until a triggering event such as trauma, surgery, or dental extraction occurs in late childhood, adolescence, or adulthood. The laboratory diagnosis of coagulopathies in the newborn or older infant is complicated by the requirement for an unhemolyzed specimen of at least 2 mL in volume from tiny veins and by the predictably low newborn levels of some coagulation factors. Laboratory professionals classify an activity level of less than 1 unit/dL as severe, associated with spontaneous or exaggerated bleeding in the neonatal period. Activity levels of 1 unit/dL to 5 units/dL are seen in moderate hemophilia, which is usually diagnosed in early childhood after symptoms become apparent. In mild hemophilia, with activity levels of 5 to 40 units/dL, hemorrhage follows significant trauma and becomes a risk factor mainly in surgery or dental extractions. Hemophilia A Clinical Manifestations Hemophilia A causes anatomic bleeds with deep muscle and joint hemorrhages; hematomas; wound oozing after trauma or surgery; and bleeding into the central nervous system, peritoneum, gastrointestinal tract, and kidneys. Acute joint bleeds (hemarthroses) are exquisitely painful and cause temporary immobilization. Chronic joint bleeds cause inflammation and eventual permanent loss of mobility, whereas bleeding into muscles may cause nerve compression injury, with first temporary and then lasting disability. Cranial bleeds lead to severe, debilitating, and durable neurologic symptoms, such as loss of memory, paralysis, seizures, and coma, and may be rapidly fatal. Bleeding may begin immediately after a triggering event or may become manifest after a delay of several hours. Hemophilia A Complications As a result of frequent bleeds, hemophilia patients often experience debilitating and progressive musculoskeletal lesions and deformities and neurologic deficiencies subsequent to intracranial hemorrhage. In addition, other chronic disease effects, such as limited productivity, low self-esteem, poverty, drug dependency, and depression, are common problems. Before the advent of sterilized and recombinant factor concentrates, chronic hepatitis often resulted from repeated exposure to blood products. If the ratio of the individual being tested is below the lower limit of the interval, she is likely to be a carrier. If these approaches are unsuccessful, as in severe hemophilia, the patient turns to coagulation factor concentrates. They are processed using immunoaffinity columns, pasteurization, and the addition of solvent-detergent. The human plasma-derived factor concentrates have traditionally been employed for on-demand therapy. The target activity level depends on the nature of the bleed or the bleeding risks of the procedure, but it is seldom necessary to reach activity greater than 75 units/dL. In the case of a bleed into soft tissue or a body cavity, the sooner the target factor level is reached, the less painful the episode, and the less likely the patient is to experience inflammation or nerve damage. The Fc fragment binds the in vivo neonatal Fc receptor, FcRn, extending the plasma half-life to nearly 20 hours and reducing the infusion frequency to once every 4 to 5 days. During clinical trials, Adynovate triggered only transient inhibitors; however, the manufacturer makes no claims about inhibitor formation frequency. It is impossible to predict which patients are likely to develop inhibitors based on genetics, demographics, or the type of concentrate used. If the level is less than 30 units/dL, the laboratory practitioner proceeds to perform mixing studies. Although the complex kinetics of acquired autoantibodies diminishes the accuracy of the results in acquired hemophilia, this method adequately monitors therapy. Each laboratory director may choose to maintain a database of hemophilia patients who have inhibitors because previous titers often predict future inhibitor behavior. Hemophilia A Treatment in Patients with Inhibitors Every hemophilic patient with an inhibitor needs an individualized treatment plan to control bleeding episodes. Hemophilic boys older than 12 with inhibitors used subcutaneous prophylactic HemLibra once a week and experienced 2. These preparations may extend prophylactic factor administration to as seldom as once every 2 weeks. It also is a sex-linked, markedly heterogeneous disorder involving numerous separate mutations resulting in a range of mild to severe bleeding manifestations. The physician treats hemophilia C with frequent plasma infusions during bleeds and times of hemostatic challenge. Other Congenital Single-Factor Deficiencies the remaining congenital single-factor deficiencies listed in Table 36. In addition, immunoassays may be performed to distinguish among the more prevalent quantitative and the less prevalent qualitative abnormalities. In qualitative disorders, often called dysproteinemias, the ratio of factor activity to antigen is less than 0. The bleeding symptoms in the dysproteinemias may be more severe than in quantitative deficiencies, but the risk of inhibitor formation is theoretically smaller. Fibrinogen is usually measured using the Clauss clot-based assay, a modification of the thrombin time, but it also may be measured by turbidimetry or immunoassay. Because platelets transport about 20% of circulating factor V, the platelet function in factor V deficiency may be diminished, which is reflected in a prolonged bleeding time test but normal platelet aggregation. Because of the concentration of factor V in platelet a-granules, platelet concentrate is an effective form of therapy for factor V deficiency. Acquired factor X deficiency has been described in amyloidosis, in paraproteinemia, and in association with antifungal drug therapy. In the Russell viper venom time test, which activates the coagulation mechanism at the level of factor X, clotting time is prolonged in deficiencies of factors X and V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen. The venom used is harvested from the Russell viper, the most dangerous snake in Asia. The intracellular form is a homodimer (two a chains) and is stored in platelets, monocytes, placenta, prostate, and uterus. The a chain contains the active enzyme site, and the b chain is a binding and stabilizing portion. The clinical laboratory plays a key role in diagnosis, classification, and treatment monitoring in hemophilia. What factor becomes deficient early in liver disease, and what assay does its deficiency prolong What is the typical treatment for vitamin K deficiency when the patient is bleeding Which of the following assays is used to distinguish vitamin K deficiency from liver disease A systematic approach to the bleeding patient: correlation of clinical symptoms and signs with laboratory testing. The quality of fresh frozen plasma produced from whole blood stored at 4° C overnight. Four-factor prothrombin complex concentrate for urgent reversal of vitamin K antagonists in patients with major bleeding. An algorithm for the management of coagulopathy from postpartum hemorrhage, using fibrinogen concentrate as first-line therapy. Guidelines on the assessment of bleeding risk prior to surgery or invasive procedures. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Combined effect of therapeutic strategies for bleeding injury on early survival, transfusion needs and correction of coagulopathy. Pathophysiology of trauma-induced coagulopathy: disseminated intravascular coagulation with the fibrinolytic phenotype. Impacts of updated transfusion guidelines on a small hospital blood bank in a Chicago suburb. The new metric to define large-volume hemorrhage: results of a prospective study of the critical administration threshold. The pragmatic randomized optimal platelet and plasma ratios trial: what does it mean for remote damage control resuscitation Characterization of blood components separated from donated whole blood after an overnight holding at room temperature with the buffy coat method. Prothrombin time in liver failure: time, ratio, activity percentage, or international normalized ratio Association between plasma fibrinogen levels and mortality in acute-on-chronic hepatitis B liver failure. Thrombocytopenia is associated with multi-organ system failure in patients with acute liver failure. A systematic review of antithrombin concentrate use in patients with disseminated intravascular coagulation of severe sepsis. Platelet aggregometry cannot identify uremic platelet dysfunction in heart failure patients prior to cardiac surgery. Fifteen years of clinical studies and clinical practice in renal transplantation: reviewing outcomes with de novo use of sirolimus in combination with cyclosporine.

Plasmin is a serine protease that systematically digests fibrin polymer by the hydrolysis of arginine-related and lysine-related peptide bonds menstrual bleeding icd 9 generic xeloda 500 mg otc. A condition known as primary fibrinolysis occurs when free plasmin circulates unchecked women's health quizzes discount generic xeloda uk, breaking down fibrinogen and formed clots women's health center pearland cheap generic xeloda canada, causing a potentially fatal hemorrhagic outcome breast cancer 1 in 500 mg xeloda buy fast delivery. Control of Fibrinolysis the regulation of fibrinolytic activity is equally important as the regulation of thrombin generation on the coagulation side of hemostasis menopause ovulation discount xeloda 500 mg line. The control proteins of the fibrinolytic system and their function are depicted in Table 35. Urokinase Plasminogen Activator Urinary tract epithelial cells, monocytes, and macrophages secrete another intrinsic plasminogen activator called urokinase plasminogen activator. Both inhibit the proteolytic activity of plasmin, thereby reducing clinical bleeding caused by excess fibrinolysis. Fragment X is described as the central E domain with the two D domains (D-E-D), minus some peptides cleaved by plasmin. Fragments X, Y, D, and E are produced by digestion of either fibrin or fibrinogen by plasmin, but D-dimer is a specific product of digestion of cross-linked fibrin only and is therefore a marker of thrombosis and fibrinolysis. Assessing D-dimer levels is an important diagnostic tool to identify disseminated intravascular coagulation and to rule out venous thromboembolism and pulmonary embolism. This is the same complex that activates the protein C pathway; however, the two functions are independent. Plasmin systematically degrades fibrinogen and fibrin by cleaving off small peptides and digesting D-E domains. From fibrinogen, fragment X consists of a central E domain with two D domains (D-E-D); further cleavage produces fragment Y (D-E), with eventual degradation to D and E domains. From cross-linked, stabilized fibrin (note double red line on the D domains), plasmin digestion produces fragment complexes from one or more monomers. These control proteins prevent excessive thrombosis and confine clotting to the site of injury. What coagulation plasma protein should be assayed when platelets fail to aggregate properly Which of the following coagulation factors is activated by thrombin and mediates the stabilization of the fibrin clot Which of the following endogenous plasma inhibitors is (are) important for the control of excessive thrombin generation Role of nitric oxide and prostacyclin as vasoactive hormones released by the endothelium. Interaction between nitric oxide signaling and gap junctions: effects on vascular function. Insights into thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor function and regulation. Uptake of plasma fibrinogen into the alpha granules of human megakaryocytes and platelets. Endothelial cell protein C receptor plays an important role in protein C activation in vivo. Reevaluation of total free, free, and bound protein S and C4b-binding protein levels in plasma anticoagulated with citrate or hirudin. Treatment of homozygous protein C deficiency and neonatal purpura fulminans with a purified protein C concentrate. Inherited platelet function disorders: overview and disorders of granules, secretion, and signal transduction. The founding of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis: how it came about. Evaluation and comparison of coagulation factor activity in fresh-frozen plasma and 24-hour plasma at thaw and after 120 hours of 1-6° C storage. Plasma von Willebrand factor, thrombosis, and the endothelium: the first 30 years. Screening test for thrombophilic patients: which tests, for which patient, by whom, when, and why Circulating inflammatory markers and risks of cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular disease. Excluding venous thromboembolism using point of care D-dimer tests in outpatients: a diagnostic meta-analysis. Distinguish among the causes of localized versus generalized, anatomic versus mucocutaneous, and acquired versus congenital bleeding. List and interpret laboratory tests that differentiate among acquired hemorrhagic disorders of trauma, liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, and kidney failure. Interpret laboratory assay results that diagnose, subtype, and monitor the treatment of von Willebrand disease. Explain the principle and rationale for the use of each laboratory test for the detection and monitoring of hemorrhagic disorders. Physical examination reveals swollen, immobilized knees; mild jaundice; and an enlarged liver and spleen. Complete blood count results indicate that the patient is anemic and has thrombocytopenia with a platelet count of 74,400/mL (reference interval, 150,000­450,000/mL). The prothrombin time test is 18 seconds (reference interval, 12­14 seconds), and the partial thromboplastin time test is 43 seconds (reference interval, 25­35 seconds). Bleeding may be local or general, mucocutaneous or anatomic, acquired or congenital. If congenital, bleeding may result from primary (plateletrelated) or secondary (coagulation factor-related) hemostasis disorders or from unregulated fibrinolysis in which clots are 650 rapidly metabolized. In contrast, a qualitative platelet defect, a reduced platelet count (thrombocytopenia), or a coagulation factor deficiency cause systemic and not localized bleeding. Bleeding from multiple sites, spontaneous and recurring bleeds, or a hemorrhage that requires physical intervention is generalized bleeding. Generalized bleeding is potential evidence for a disorder of primary hemostasis such as a blood vessel or platelet defect (Chapters 10 and 37) or thrombocytopenia (Chapter 38); or secondary hemostasis characterized by single or multiple coagulation factor deficiencies or uncontrolled fibrinolysis. Mucocutaneous Versus Anatomic Hemorrhage Generalized bleeding may exhibit either a mucocutaneous (typically in skin or at body orifices) or anatomic (in soft tissue, muscles, joints, deep tissue) pattern. Other symptoms of a primary hemostasis defect include bleeding from the gums, epistaxis (uncontrolled nosebleed), hematemesis (vomiting of blood), blood in the urine or stool, and menorrhagia (profuse menstrual flow). Although nosebleeds are common and mostly innocent, especially in children, they suggest a primary hemostatic defect when they occur repeatedly, last longer than 10 minutes, involve both nostrils, or require physical intervention or blood products. A thorough patient history and physical examination may distinguish between mucocutaneous and anatomic bleeding; this distinction helps direct investigative laboratory testing and subsequent treatment. Anatomic (soft tissue) hemorrhage is seen in acquired or congenital defects in secondary hemostasis such as plasma coagulation factor deficiencies (coagulopathies). In such cases, hemorrhage may immediately follow a primary event, but it is often delayed or recurs minutes or hours after the event. Most anatomic bleeds are internal, such as bleeds into joints, body cavities, muscles, or the central nervous system, and may have few initially discernible signs. They may not be immediately perceived as hemorrhages, although experienced hemophilia patients usually recognize the symptoms at their onset. Recurrent hemarthroses cause inflammation that may culminate in permanent cartilage damage that immobilizes the joint. Bleeds into soft tissues such as muscle or fat may cause nerve compression and subsequent temporary or permanent loss of function. Bleeding into the central nervous system, for instance, may cause headaches, confusion, seizures, and coma and is managed as a medical emergency. Bleeds into the kidney may present as hematuria and may be associated with acute renal failure. Hemostasis laboratory testing is essential whenever a generalized mucocutaneous or anatomic bleed is detected. Chronic disorders commonly associated with bleeding are liver disease, vitamin K deficiency, and renal failure. In all cases, laboratory test results are necessary to confirm the diagnosis and guide the management of acquired hemorrhagic events. When an adult patient seeks treatment of generalized hemorrhage, the physician first looks for an underlying condition, disease, drug effect, or event and records a personal and family history (Box 36. The important elements of patient history are age; sex; current or past pregnancy; a systemic disorder such as diabetes or cancer; trauma; and exposure to drugs, including prescription drugs, over-the-counter nutritional supplements, alcohol abuse, and drugs of abuse. The physician determines the trigger, location, and volume of bleeding and then orders initial hemostasis laboratory assays (Table 36. These tests take on clinical significance when the history and physical examination have already established the existence of abnormal bleeding. Because of their propensity to generate false positive results in the absence of indications, hemostatic laboratory tests are ineffective when employed indiscriminately as population screens for healthy individuals (Chapter 2). Congenital bleeding disorders lead to recurrent hemorrhages that may be spontaneous or may occur after minor injury or in unexpected locations, such as joints, body cavities, retinal veins and arteries, or the central nervous system. Patients with mild congenital hemorrhagic disorders may have no symptoms until they reach adulthood or experience some physical challenge, such as trauma, dental extraction, or a surgical procedure. The total rises when statisticians include self-inflicted, felonious, and combat injuries. In the United States alone, trauma caused 214,000 deaths in 2015, or 63 per 100,000 residents. Platelet concentrate inventories are limited and costly to manage, but concentrate contributes to positive outcomes because platelets halt microvascular bleeding. In these conditions, therapeutic platelets are rapidly consumed, and their administration may therefore be contraindicated, although they may provide temporary rescue in emergent situations. Administration of cryoprecipitate is indicated when there is microvascular bleeding and the fibrinogen concentration is less than 100 mg/dL. A target fibrinogen level of 100 mg/dL should be maintained, though some recommend 200 mg/dL in postpartum hemorrhage. Enlarged and collateral esophageal vessels called esophageal varices are a complication of chronic alcoholic cirrhosis; hemorrhaging from varices is localized bleeding, not a coagulopathy, though often fatal. Mucocutaneous bleeding occurs in liver disease­associated thrombocytopenia, often accompanied by decreased platelet function. Platelet Abnormalities in Liver Disease Moderate thrombocytopenia occurs in one-third of patients with liver disease. Platelet aggregation and secretion properties are often suppressed; this is reflected in reduced platelet aggregometry and lumiaggregometry results (Chapter 41). Although controversial, aggregometry may be used to predict bleeding and thrombosis risk. Both factors are decreased in liver disease, but factor V levels remain within the reference interval in simple vitamin K deficiency. This test duplicates the Procoagulant Deficiency in Liver Disease the liver produces nearly all of the plasma coagulation factors and regulatory proteins. In liver disease these seven factors are produced in their des-g-carboxyl forms, which cannot participate in coagulation (Chapter 35). Plasma and cryoprecipitate present a theoretical risk of virus transmission, as do other untreated single-donor biologic blood products, and allergic transfusion reactions are more common with plasma-containing products. Although these are by definition thrombotic disorders, they invariably cause thrombocytopenia, which may lead to mucocutaneous bleeding. Fibrin also may be deposited in renal transplant rejection and in the glomerulonephritis syndrome of systemic lupus erythematosus. Laboratory tests for bleeding in renal disease provide only modest information with little predictive or management value (Chapter 41). The bleeding time test may be prolonged, but it is too unreliable to provide an accurate diagnosis or to assist in monitoring treatment. Renal dialysis temporarily activates platelets and may ultimately improve platelet function, particularly when anemia is well controlled. Platelet count Platelet aggregometry Quantitative D-dimer thrombin time test except that venom of the reptile Bothrops atrox (common lancehead viper) is substituted for the thrombin reagent. The Bothrops venom triggers fibrin polymerization by cleaving fibrinopeptide A but not fibrinopeptide B from the fibrinogen molecule (Chapter 35). The subsequent polymerization is slowed by structural defects, which prolong the time interval to clot formation. The reptilase time test is unaffected by standard unfractionated heparin therapy and can be used to assess fibrinogen function even when there is heparin in the specimen. Nephrotic Syndrome and Hemorrhage Nephrotic syndrome is a state of increased glomerular permeability associated with a variety of conditions, such as chronic glomerulonephritis, diabetic glomerulosclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, amyloidosis, and renal vein thrombosis. In 25% of cases, loss of regulatory proteins takes precedence over loss of procoagulants and leads to a tendency toward venous thrombosis. Body stores are limited, however, and become exhausted when the usual diet is interrupted, as when patients are fed only with parenteral (intravenous) nutrition for an extended period or when people embark upon fad diets. Broad-spectrum antibiotics that disrupt normal gut flora may cause a slight reduction because they destroy bacteria that produce vitamin K. The standard therapy for vitamin K deficiency is oral-or, in an emergency, intravenous-vitamin K. Acquired hemophilia is occasionally associated with rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, or lymphoproliferative disease. Patients with inhibitor autoantibodies are prescribed immunosuppressive therapy, although autoantibodies that develop after pregnancy typically disappear spontaneously. Altogether, acquired hemophilia has an incidence of 1 per million people per year. Patients experience sudden and severe bleeding in soft tissues or bleeding in the gastrointestinal or genitourinary tract. Autoantibodies to other procoagulants are less common but create similar symptoms. Breastfeeding prolongs the deficiency because passively acquired maternal antibodies delay the establishment of gut flora.

It may also be found in urinary tracts severely obstructed by posterior urethral valves; in this instance menstrual type cramps 37 weeks buy xeloda 500 mg mastercard, the lesion may be bilateral pregnancy gas effective xeloda 500 mg. The renal parenchyma may show peritubular fibrosis and evidence of secondary infection menstrual blood color xeloda 500 mg buy otc. There appears to be a reduction in the number of glomeruli women's health clinic jersey city proven xeloda 500 mg, some of which may be hyalinized menstrual joint pain xeloda 500 mg with visa. The multiple thin-walled cysts filled with fluid and the large renal size make this imaging method extremely accurate (95%) for diagnosis. Symptoms Pain over one or both kidneys may occur because of the drag on the vascular pedicles by the heavy kidneys, from obstruction or infection, or from hemorrhage into a cyst. Gross or microscopic total hematuria is not uncommon and may be severe; the cause for this is not clear. When renal insufficiency ensues, headache, nausea and vomiting, weakness, and loss of weight occur. Isotope Studies Photoscans reveal multiple "cold" avascular spots in large renal shadows. Ultrasonography Sonography appears to be superior to both excretory urography and isotope scanning in diagnosis of polycystic disorders. Instrumental Examination Cystoscopy may show evidence of cystitis, in which case the urine will contain abnormal elements. Ophthalmoscopic examination may show changes typical of moderate or severe hypertension. Differential Diagnosis Bilateral hydronephrosis (determined by the presence of congenital or acquired ureteral obstruction) may present bilateral flank masses and signs of impairment of renal function, but ultrasonography shows changes quite different from those of the polycystic kidney. Bilateral renal tumor is rare but may mimic polycystic kidney disease perfectly on urography. Tumors are usually localized to one portion of the kidney, whereas cysts are quite diffusely distributed. The total renal function should be normal with unilateral tumor but is usually depressed in patients with polycystic kidney disease. In von Hippel­Lindau disease (angiomatous cerebellar cyst, angiomatosis of the retina, and tumors or cysts of the pancreas), multiple bilateral cysts, or adenocarcinomas of both kidneys may develop. Tuberous sclerosis (convulsive seizures, mental retardation, and adenoma sebaceum) is typified by hamartomatous tumors often involving the skin, brain, retinas, bones, liver, heart, and kidneys (see Chapter 21). The renal lesions are usually multiple and bilateral and are angiomyolipomas microscopically. A simple cyst (see section following this one) is usually unilateral and single; total renal function should be normal. Laboratory Findings Anemia may be noted, caused either by chronic loss of blood or, more commonly, by the hematopoietic depression accompanying uremia. About one-third of patients with polycystic kidney disease are uremic when first seen. X-Ray Findings Both renal shadows are usually enlarged on a plain film of the abdomen, even by as much as 5 times normal size. The renal masses are usually enlarged and the calyceal pattern is quite bizarre (spider deformity). The calyces are broadened and flattened, enlarged, and often curved, as they tend to hug the periphery of adjacent cysts. Often, the changes are only slight or may even be absent on one side, leading to the erroneous diagnosis of tumor of the other kidney. If cysts are infected, perinephritis may obscure the renal and even the psoas shadows. Lower left: Excretory urogram showing soft-tissue mass in upper pole of right kidney. Lower right: Infusion nephrotomogram showing large cyst in upper renal pole distorting upper calyces and dislocating upper portion of kidney laterally. Infection of cysts is associated with pain and tenderness over the kidney and a febrile response. The differential diagnosis between infection of cysts and pyelonephritis may be difficult, but here again a gallium scan will prove helpful. In rare instances, gross hematuria may be so brisk and persistent as to endanger life. When the degree of renal insufficiency becomes life-threatening, chronic dialysis or renal transplantation should be considered. Medical Management Traditionally, treatment for adult polycystic kidney disease has been conservative and supportive. Vasopressin V2 receptor antagonists such as tolvaptan are being studied as possible medical agents to slow disease progression by reducing kidney cyst cell proliferation. They carry the potential side effect of transaminitis and hepatotoxicity (Barnawi et al, 2018). Treatment of Complications Pyelonephritis must be rigorously treated to prevent further renal damage. If bleeding from one kidney is so severe that exsanguination is possible, nephrectomy or embolization of the renal or, preferably, the segmental artery must be considered as a lifesaving measure. Concomitant diseases (eg, tumor, obstructing stone) may require definitive surgical treatment. Physical activity may be permitted within reason, but strenuous exercise is contraindicated. When the patient is in a state of absolute renal insufficiency, one should treat the same as for uremia from any cause. The large group presenting clinical signs and symptoms after age 35­40 years has a somewhat more favorable prognosis. Although there is wide variation, these patients seldom live longer than 5 or 10 years after the diagnosis is made, unless dialysis is made available or renal transplantation is done. Surgery There is no evidence that excision or decompression of cysts improves renal function. Right: After intravenous injection of contrast material, the mass did not increase in attenuation value, adding further confirmatory evidence of its benign cystic nature. Its origin may be similar to that of polycystic kidneys; that is, the difference may be merely one of degree. On the other hand, simple cysts have been produced in animals by causing tubular obstruction and local ischemia; this suggests that the lesion can be acquired. As a simple cyst grows, it compresses and thereby may destroy renal parenchyma, but rarely does it destroy so much renal tissue that renal function is impaired. A solitary cyst may be placed in such a position as to compress the ureter, causing progressive hydronephrosis. Symptoms Pain in the flank or back, usually intermittent and dull, is not uncommon. If bleeding suddenly distends the cyst wall, pain may come on abruptly and be severe. Gastrointestinal symptoms are occasionally noted and may suggest peptic ulcer or gallbladder disease. The patient may discover a mass in the abdomen, although cysts of this size are unusual. If the cyst becomes infected, the patient usually complains of pain in the flank, malaise, and fever. Signs Physical examination is usually normal, although occasionally a mass in the region of the kidney may be palpated or percussed. Those that produce symptoms average about 10 cm in diameter, but a few are large enough to fill the entire flank. About 5% contain hemorrhagic fluid, and possibly one-half of these have papillary cancers on their walls. When a cyst is situated deep inside the kidney, the cyst wall is adjacent to the epithelial lining of the pelvis or calyces, from which it may be separated only with great difficulty. Microscopic examination of the cyst wall shows heavy fibrosis and hyalinization; areas of calcification may be seen. However, large cysts are rare in children; the presence of cancer must therefore be ruled out. The Bosniak classification of simple renal cysts is an aid to determining the chance of malignancy based on imaging criteria. Numerous variations of the findings are used as a guide in the diagnosis of renal cancer. The prevalence of malignancy increases as cyst complexity increases, with pooled malignancy rates of 3. Renal function tests are normal unless the cysts are multiple and bilateral (rare). Even in the face of extensive destruction of one kidney, compensatory hypertrophy of the other kidney will maintain normal total function. Cysts have an attenuation approximating that of water, whereas the density of tumors is similar to that of normal parenchyma. The density of parenchyma increases with the intravenous injection of radiopaque fluid, but a cyst remains unaffected. The wall of a cyst is sharply demarcated from the renal parenchyma; a tumor is not. Renal Ultrasonography Renal ultrasonography is a noninvasive diagnostic technique that differentiates between a cyst and a solid mass in a high percentage of cases. If findings on ultrasonography are also compatible with a cyst, a needle can be introduced into the cyst under ultrasonographic control and the cyst can be aspirated. Isotope Scanning A rectilinear scan clearly delineates the mass but does not differentiate a cyst from a tumor. The bleeding may be caused by a complicating carcinoma arising on the wall of the cyst. Percutaneous Cyst Aspiration with Cystography If the studies listed leave some doubt about the differentiation between cyst and tumor, aspiration may be done (see "Treatment" section, below). Differential Diagnosis Carcinoma of the kidney also occupies space but tends to lie more deeply in the organ and therefore causes more distortion of the calyces. If a solid tumor overlies the psoas muscle, the edge of the muscle is obliterated on the plain film; it can be seen through a cyst, however. Evidence of metastases (ie, loss of weight and strength, palpable supraclavicular nodes, chest film showing metastatic nodules), erythrocytosis, hypercalcemia, and increased sedimentation rate suggest cancer. It must be remembered, however, that the walls of a simple cyst may undergo cancerous degeneration. It is wise to assume that all spaceoccupying lesions of the kidneys are cancers until proven otherwise. Polycystic kidney disease is usually accompanied by impaired renal function and hypertension; a simple cyst is not. A history of skin infection a few weeks before the onset of fever and local pain may be obtained. The kidney may be fixed; this can be demonstrated by comparing the position of the kidney when the patient is supine and upright. A gallium-67 scan demonstrates the inflammatory nature of the lesion, but an infected simple cyst might have a similar appearance. Hydronephrosis may present the same symptoms and signs as simple cyst, but the urograms are quite different. A cyst causes calyceal distortion; with hydronephrosis, dilatation of the calyces and pelvis due to an obstruction is present. Acute or subacute hydronephrosis usually produces more local pain because of increased intrapelvic pressure and is more apt to be complicated by infection. Extrarenal tumor (eg, adrenal, mixed retroperitoneal sarcoma) may displace a kidney, but rarely does it invade it and distort its calyces. If an echinococcal cyst of the kidney does not communicate with the renal pelvis, it may be difficult to differentiate it from a solitary cyst, for no scoleces or hooklets will be present in the urine. The recovery of clear fluid is characteristic of a benign cyst, which should be confirmed by cytologic evaluation. In some centers, contrast radiopaque fluid is injected into the cyst after aspiration for a more thorough evaluation of the cyst wall. A smooth cyst wall, free of irregularities, supports the presence of a benign cyst. If the aspirate contains blood, surgical exploration should be considered, because the chances are great that the growth is cancerous. If the diagnosis can be clearly established, one should consider leaving the cyst alone, since it is rare for a cyst to harm the kidney. Treatment of Complications If the cyst becomes infected, intensive antimicrobial therapy should be instituted; antimicrobial drugs have been found to attain very low concentrations in the cyst fluid. Surgical excision of the extrarenal portion of the cyst wall and drainage are curative when percutaneous drainage fails. If hydronephrosis is present, excision of the obstructing cyst will relieve the ureteral obstruction. Pyelonephritis in the involved kidney should suggest urinary stasis secondary to impaired ureteral drainage. Removal of the cyst and consequent relief of urinary back pressure make antimicrobial therapy more effective. Yearly sonography is recommended as a method of following the cyst for changes in size, configuration, and internal consistency. Signs Physical examination results are usually negative unless the abnormally placed renal mass can be felt. With horseshoe kidney, it may be possible to palpate a mass over the lower lumbar spine (the isthmus). Approximately 1 in 1000 individuals has some type of renal fusion; the most common type is the "horseshoe" kidney. The fused renal mass almost always contains two excretory systems and therefore two ureters. The renal tissue may be divided equally between the two flanks, or the entire mass may be on one side.

Neonatal Hemostasis Specimen Collection and Management Specimen collection and handling for hemostatic testing in neonates follows the principles described in Chapter 41 breast cancer cupcakes order cheap xeloda line. However menstrual period calculator due date xeloda 500 mg buy cheap, for this population attention should be given to the collection procedure guidelines established for patients with small vessels menstrual bleeding after menopause 500 mg xeloda visa, capillary specimen collection by skin puncture womens health the next fitness star dvd purchase xeloda 500 mg visa, and procedures for heel stick specimen collection described on the Evolve website pregnancy nutrition app purchase xeloda with american express. Hemostatic Components the physiology of the hemostatic system in infants and children is different from that in adults (Chapter 35) (reference ranges are on the inside back cover of the book). Antithrombin and protein S reach adult values by 3 months, whereas protein C does not reach adult levels until after 6 months. This is primarily related to the reduced levels of the physiologic anticoagulants protein C and protein S. However, two age-related peaks in frequency occur: the first in the neonatal period and the second in postpuberty adolescence. Under current conditions, people who survive to age 65 can expect to live an average of 19. With the increase in the aging population, the incidence of age-related health conditions also is likely to increase. Marrow cellularity begins at 80% to 100% in infancy and decreases to about 50% after 30 years, followed by a decline to 30% after age 65. These were derived from healthy young adults, yet what constitutes "normal" for elderly patients is a matter of considerable debate. There is controversy concerning the assignment of geriatric age-specific reference intervals, especially because aging is often accompanied by physiologic changes and the prevalence of disease increases markedly. The baseline values for elderly adults are the same reference intervals used for healthy adults; however, the heterogeneity in the aging process and difficulty in separating the effects of age from the effects of occult diseases that accompany aging emphasize the importance of proper interpretation of hematologic data and requires a complete understanding of the association between disease and older age. This section focuses on hematologic changes in elderly adults and discusses hematologic reference intervals for various geriatric age groups as well as hematopathologic conditions seen in the geriatric population. There is a gradual decline in hemoglobin starting at middle age, with the mean level decreasing by about 1 g/dL during the sixth through eighth decades. The hemoglobin levels in women may increase slightly with age or remain unchanged. Men normally have higher hemoglobin levels than women because of the stimulating effect of androgens on erythropoiesis; however, the difference narrows as androgen levels decrease in elderly men and estrogen levels decrease in older women. Typically the lowest hemoglobin levels are found in the oldest patients (Table 43. Some investigators, however, have reported a lower leukocyte count in elderly adults, owing primarily to a decrease in the lymphocyte count. Infectious diseases are an important cause of morbidity and mortality in elderly adults. Aged adults are more susceptible to infection, take longer to recover from infection, and are often less responsive to vaccination. The number of naive T cells decreases in elderly adults, which increases the dependence on memory T cells. Thus the decreased ability to generate antibody responses, especially to primary antigens, may be the result of T cell changes rather than intrinsic defects in B lymphocytes. Many neutrophil functions are decreased in elderly adults, including chemotaxis, phagocytosis of microorganisms, and generation of superoxide. Studies indicate that these defects may be associated with changes to the cell membrane or to receptor signaling. Information on the effects of aging on monocyte and macrophage function is limited and often conflicting. There have been reports of increased levels of b-thromboglobulin and platelet factor 4 in the a-granules of platelets and increased platelet phospholipid content. Essential thrombocythemia is a myeloproliferative neoplasm characterized by sustained proliferation of megakaryocytes, resulting in platelet counts of 450 3 109/L or greater (Chapter 32). This prevalence increases rapidly with age, and exceeds 20% in individuals aged 85 or older. Unexplained anemia, anemia of inflammation, iron deficiency anemia, and anemia as a result of hematologic malignancies are the most common causes of anemia in elderly adults. Ineffective erythropoiesis is associated with vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, myelodysplastic syndrome, sideroblastic anemia, and thalassemia. Hypoproliferative anemia often occurs secondary to iron deficiency, vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, renal failure, hypothyroidism, chronic inflammation, or endocrine disease. In addition, assessment for signs of gastrointestinal blood loss, hemolysis, nutritional deficiencies, malignancy, chronic infection, renal or hepatic disease, or other chronic disease can provide important information for the evaluation of anemia in elderly adults. Hemoglobin synthesis is reduced, and even a minimal decrease can cause profound functional disabilities in an elderly patient. The serum iron level decreases progressively with each decade of life, particularly in women. Nevertheless, healthy elderly adults usually have serum iron levels within the adult reference interval. Iron deficiency anemia in elderly adults rarely is due to dietary deficiency in industrialized nations because of the prevalence of iron fortification of grains, as well as a diet that includes meats containing heme iron. Iron deficiency in elderly adults most often results from conditions leading to chronic gastrointestinal blood loss, including long-term use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory medications, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease with esophagitis, colon cancer, and angiodysplasia. The anemia is typically mild and normocytic, with hemoglobin levels between 10 to 12 g/dL. Sideroblastic anemias are characterized by impaired heme synthesis, and abnormal globin synthesis occurs in the thalassemias (Chapters 17 and 25). Two causes of megaloblastic anemia are vitamin B12 deficiency and folate deficiency. Myelodysplastic syndrome results in ineffective hematopoiesis as a result of mutations in hematopoietic stem cells and progenitor cells. Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency has been reported in 10% to 20% of elderly patients; however, clinically significant vitamin B12 deficiency is identified in less than 1% of the elderly population. Even when anemia is present, it does not always manifest with the classic macrocytic and megaloblastic picture but may be normocytic. Vitamin B12 deficiency in elderly adults has been attributed to inadequate intestinal absorption of food-bound vitamin B12 rather than pernicious anemia or inadequate intake. In this condition there is low vitamin B12 absorption because protein-bound vitamin B12 is not dissociated from food proteins and therefore cannot bind to intrinsic factor for absorption. Inadequate vitamin B12 absorption in elderly adults has also been reported in other uncommon conditions such as small bowel disorder, gastric resection, pancreatic insufficiency, resection of the terminal ileum, blind loop syndrome, and tropical sprue. A second megaloblastic anemia that may be seen in elderly adults results from folate deficiency. In contrast to vitamin B12 deficiency, folic acid deficiency usually develops from inadequate dietary intake because the body stores little folate. Alcohol may also interfere with folate absorption and the induction of enzymes involved in folate catabolism (Chapter 18). Myeloproliferative disorders include chronic myeloid leukemia; polycythemia vera; essential thrombocythemia; primary myelofibrosis; chronic eosinophilic leukemia, not otherwise specified; mastocytosis; chronic neutrophilic leukemia; and unclassifiable myeloproliferative neoplasms. Myelodysplastic syndrome is the most common hematologic malignancy in elderly adults, with a median age at diagnosis of 68 to 75 years. Leukemia Leukemia is a neoplastic disease characterized by a malignant proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow, peripheral blood, and often other organs. Leukemia is broadly classified on the basis of the cell type involved (lymphoid or myeloid) and the stage of maturity of the leukemic cells (acute or chronic). Although the overall incidence of leukemia has decreased in the past 5 decades, there is a disproportionately greater incidence of leukemia in elderly adults (Table 43. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (Chapter 34) has the most dramatic age-related increase in incidence, increasing in incidence from 1. These changes contribute to the increased incidence of thrombosis in elderly adults. The rate of venous thromboembolism, for example, increases from 1 per 10,000 in the young (25 to 30 years) to 8 per 1000 in elderly adults (85 years and older). Platelets increase in activity with age, as evidenced by a decrease in bleeding time in elderly adults and an increase in markers of platelet activation such as b-thromboglobulin and platelet factor 4. These factors include immobility, malignant disease, comorbidities, and prescription drugs that influence coagulation or platelet function. The physiologic anemia of pregnancy is generally normochromic and normocytic; therefore, if a pregnant woman has a microcytic hypochromic anemia, nonphysiologic causes must be considered. Iron deficiency is the most common cause of nonphysiologic anemia during pregnancy. These physiologic changes are largely beneficial to the mother and the baby but can sometimes cause problems. The increase in uterine blood flow can also lead to hemorrhage at the time of delivery. Changes in coagulation factors help to combat this but result in a hypercoagulable state and increase the risk for thromboembolic events. Recognizing and treating the hematologic and hemostatic disorders that occur during pregnancy can be difficult because of the scarcity of data available that are specific to the hematology and hemostasis of pregnancy. This section discusses the physiologic changes and related disorders that occur in the hematologic system during pregnancy (Table 43. Anemia and the Pregnant Woman the most common hematologic complication during pregnancy is anemia. Under normal circumstances there is an increased requirement for total iron during pregnancy of approximately 1200 mg, an increase in daily iron intake between 15 mg/day to 30 mg/day. Fifty two percent of pregnant women from underdeveloped or developing countries and 20% from industrialized nations are anemic. According to criteria established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, among low-income pregnant women in the United States, 8% are anemic during the first trimester, 12% in the second trimester, and 34% in the third trimester. If the ferritin level is normal or elevated and there is evidence of a microcytic, hypochromic anemia, iron deficiency anemia should be considered. There is disagreement about iron requirements and whether routine supplementation is appropriate in pregnancy. However, it is safer and less expensive to prescribe daily iron supplements to all pregnant women because it appears to do no harm to either the mother or the developing fetus. Most guidelines recommend an increase in iron consumption of 15 to 30 mg/day from the beginning of gestation to 3 months postpartum. Parasitic Infections Organisms such as Ancylostoma (hookworm), Trichuris trichiura (whipworm), and Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm), and Plasmodium (malaria) are common causes of infections in less developed countries. Normal pregnancy is considered to be a hypercoagulable state associated with significantly increased concentrations of coagulation factors and decreasing levels of anticoagulation proteins. The hemostatic balance shifts toward enhanced coagulation-which, on the one hand, protects pregnant women from excessive bleeding and hemorrhage during delivery and the postpartum period (puerperium), but, on the other hand, predisposes them to thromboembolism. Megaloblastic Anemia Megaloblastic anemia is the second most common nutritional anemia in pregnancy. Serum vitamin B12 levels can decrease to as low as 100 ng/mL during pregnancy, primarily because of a dilutional effect rather than a true deficiency. Chapter 18 provides an in-depth discussion of folate and vitamin B12 and their role in megaloblastic anemia. Hemoglobinopathies Early screening for sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and other hemoglobinopathies is critical for prenatal diagnosis and use of genetic counseling. For example, all women with chronic hemolysis during pregnancy need extra folic acid supplementation. Overall there is a 4- to 10-fold increased risk of thrombosis throughout gestation and the postpartum period. The risk of thrombosis increases as pregnancy progresses and peaks during the puerperium. There is inconsistent evidence as to whether the factor V Leiden and the prothrombin gene mutations are associated with increased incidence of pregnancy loss. If required, testing should include antithrombin level, protein C level, and polymerase chain reaction for factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A. Women who have had a single previous thromboembolic episode are commonly given prophylactic low-dose aspirin during their pregnancy. Repeat testing on a new specimen collected more than 12 weeks later will distinguish a chronic autoantibody from a transient alloantibody. Thrombocytopenia is common in pregnancy (6% to 10%), with gestational thrombocytopenia occurring in 75% of all cases. Most cases are mild, with platelet counts of 100,000 to 150,000/mL, and are not associated with any adverse events for the mother or baby. The decrease is most pronounced during the third trimester but rarely drops to less than 70,000 to 80,000/mL, and counts typically return to normal by 6 weeks postpartum. For example, corticosteroids may exacerbate gestational diabetes mellitus or maternal hypertension. It is important to note that maternal antiplatelet antibodies can cross the placenta and induce thrombocytopenia in the fetus. Preeclampsia is the most common cause of pregnancy-related mortality worldwide, affecting up to 6% of all first pregnancies. Hematologic complications include microangiopathic hemolytic anemia with fragmented red blood cells in the peripheral blood, and coagulation abnormalities. Inadequate placentation and endothelial damage are thought to be responsible for the pathogenesis of preeclampsia. Laboratory results must be assessed in light of gestational age, birth weight, and developmental differences between newborns and older infants. A condition known as physiologic anemia of infancy occurs after the first few weeks of life. Infants born prematurely also experience a decrease in hemoglobin concentration, which is termed physiologic anemia of prematurity. Leukocytosis is typical at birth for healthy full-term and preterm infants, with a mean of 22 3 109 cells/L (range 9 to 30 3 109 cells/L) at 12 hours of life. There is an increase in segmented neutrophils, bands, and occasional metamyelocytes with no evidence of disease.

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